New Studies on Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: History, Diversity, and Applications in Psychiatry.

This paper is a review of the new studies or new explanations of the hallucinogenic mushrooms, regarding their diversity, history, traditions, and problems in their recreational use, new taxonomic studies, and their modern applications in medicine, all of them since the 1970s to the present.

Recreational use, analysis and toxicity of tryptamines.

Unlabelled: The definition New psychoactive substances (NPS) refers to emerging drugs whose chemical structures are similar to other psychoactive compounds but not identical, representing a "legal" alternative to internationally controlled drugs. There are many categories of NPS, such as synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, phenylethylamines, piperazines, ketamine derivatives and tryptamines. Tryptamines are naturally occurring compounds, which can derive from the amino acid tryptophan by several biosynthetic pathways: their structure is a combination of a benzene ring and a pyrrole ring, with the addition of a 2-carbon side chain.

The hallucinogenic world of tryptamines: an updated review.

In the area of psychotropic drugs, tryptamines are known to be a broad class of classical or serotonergic hallucinogens. These drugs are capable of producing profound changes in sensory perception, mood and thought in humans and act primarily as agonists of the 5-HT2A receptor. Well-known tryptamines such as psilocybin contained in Aztec sacred mushrooms and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), present in South American psychoactive beverage ayahuasca, have been restrictedly used since ancient times in sociocultural and ritual contexts.

Research on acute toxicity and the behavioral effects of methanolic extract from psilocybin mushrooms and psilocin in mice.

The pharmacological activities and acute toxicity of the psilocin (PC) and dried residues of the crude extracts of psychotropic mushrooms were investigated in mice. The hallucinogenic substances were effectively isolated, by using methanol, from the species of Psilocybe semilanceata and Pholiotina cyanopus, that were collected in the north-east region of Poland. The chemical analysis of these extracts, which was performed by liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry detection (LC-MS), indicated the presence of psilocin and other hallucinogenic substances, including indolealkylamines and their phosphorylated analogues.

Evolution of the toxins muscarine and psilocybin in a family of mushroom-forming fungi.

Mushroom-forming fungi produce a wide array of toxic alkaloids. However, evolutionary analyses aimed at exploring the evolution of muscarine, a toxin that stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system, and psilocybin, a hallucinogen, have never been performed. The known taxonomic distribution of muscarine within the Inocybaceae is limited, based only on assays of species from temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.

Mushroom poisoning in Ireland: the collaboration between the National Poisons Information Centre and expert mycologists.

Background: Occasionally, mycologist assistance is requested to reliably identify mushroom species in symptomatic cases where there is a concern that a toxic species is involved. The aim of this study was to describe the epidemiology of mushroom poisoning in Ireland, to describe the working arrangement between the National Poisons Information Centre (NPIC) and professional mycologists and to present a case series detailing the circumstances when mycologists were consulted.

Methods: Computerised records from 1 January 2004 to 31 December 2009 were retrospectively reviewed and data on patient demographics, circumstances, and mushroom species collated.

[Poisoning with selected mushrooms with neurotropic and hallucinogenic effect].

Picking mushrooms, especially in summer and autumn, is still very popular in Poland. Despite raising awareness of poisonous mushrooms in the Polish society, year after year hospitals treat many patients diagnosed with poisoning with the most common toxic species of mushroom found in our country. Furthermore, growing interest in hallucinogenic mushrooms among young people has become a serious medical problem of our time.

Revisiting Wasson's Soma: exploring the effects of preparation on the chemistry of Amanita muscaria.

In 1968 R. Gordon Wasson first proposed his groundbreaking theory identifying Soma, the hallucinogenic sacrament of the Vedas, as the Amanita muscaria mushroom. While Wasson's theory has garnered acclaim, it is not without its faults.

Harm potential of magic mushroom use: a review.

In 2007, the Minister of Health of the Netherlands requested the CAM (Coordination point Assessment and Monitoring new drugs) to assess the overall risk of magic mushrooms. The present paper is an updated redraft of the review, written to support the assessment by CAM experts. It summarizes the literature on physical or psychological dependence, acute and chronic toxicity, risk for public health and criminal aspects related to the consumption of magic mushrooms.

Bioanalytical and clinical evaluation of 103 suspected cases of intoxications with psychoactive plant materials.

Introduction: Problems associated with the increasing abuse of plant-derived psychoactive substances have recently attracted attention. This study involved bioanalytical and clinical examinations of intoxication cases suspected to be linked to such plant materials.

Methods: Urine samples were collected at emergency wards in Sweden from patients who either admitted or were suspected of ingestion of psychoactive plant materials.

Analysis of mushroom exposures in Texas requiring hospitalization, 2005-2006.

Introduction: Texas has approximately 200 species of wild mushrooms, including toxic and hallucinogenic varieties. Mushroom ingestions in Texas were studied for 2005-2006.

Methods: Data was obtained via Texas Poison Control Centers and retrospectively reviewed.

Analysis of toxic alkaloids in body samples.

Many plants contain toxic alkaloids which may be dangerous to humans. Despite the large number of poisonous plants, cases of fatal plant poisonings are relatively rare. The frequencies of poisonings and the plants involved are often regionally specific.

Unrecognized magic mushroom abuse in a 28-year-old man.

A 28-year-old man with a history of drug and alcohol abuse presented multiple times to the hospital over 2 months with an elusive constellation of symptoms, resolving spontaneously in each instance. This patient required a high level of care for management and stabilization, including 3 emergency department visits, 2 medical floor admissions, and 1 intensive care unit admission. In both the emergency department and inpatient setting, all laboratory and imaging study results, including gas chromatography/mass spectrophotometry of the urine, were negative/normal.

Hallucinogenic plants of abuse.

Man has used hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms for centuries. The characteristics of these plants that led to their incorporation into important ritualistic and spiritual traditions, however, have also resulted in their widespread propagation and abuse. Hallucinogenic plants have long been depicted as innocuous substances, yet their unpredictable nature makes intoxication potentially dangerous.

[Automutilation after consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms].

Two young men, 25 and 32 years old, presented with severe automutilation by knife wounds after consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms. The first patient had also used cocaine, cannabis and alcohol, while the second patient had only used the hallucinogenic mushrooms. Both patients were treated symptomatically and survived despite their severe stab wounds.

[Concentration of selected microelements in blood serum of rats exposed to the action of psilocin and phenylethylamine].

Natural hallucinogens (including Psilocybe mushrooms) became popular in Europe since the nineties. They have been in the focus of clinicians interest for years because of their biological effects. Mechanism of action of these hallucinogens, both Psilocin and Psilocibin, is based on the physiological structure similarity to human neurotransmitters as serotonin and catecholamines.

[Hallucinogenic mushrooms].

The group of hallucinogenic mushrooms (species of the genera Conocybe, Gymnopilus, Panaeolus, Pluteus, Psilocybe, and Stropharia) is psilocybin-containing mushrooms. These "magic", psychoactive fungi have the serotonergic hallucinogen psilocybin. Toxicity of these mushrooms is substantial because of the popularity of hallucinogens.

Cap mushroom poisonings.

This paper presents species of fungi of high toxicity. Their consumption might have serious consequences for health and in many cases it might lead to death. Toxic compounds present in fungi have also been characterised, mechanisms of their toxic activity have been presented and clinical symptoms of poisoning have been described.

The Meixner test in the detection of alpha-amanitin and false-positive reactions caused by psilocin and 5-substituted tryptamines.

Study Objective: The Meixner test has been suggested to identify the presence of alpha-amanitin, one of the toxic compounds in Amanita mushrooms. We attempted to determine the detection limit of the Meixner test for alpha-amanitin and to determine the percentage of positive sample interpretation compared with other mushroom indole compounds.

Methods: This was a 2-part in vitro experiment.

[Hallucinogens, amphetamines and entactogens].

MDMA ("Ecstasy") and its analogues such as MDE and MDA are amphetamine derivatives reported to produce an altered state with emotional overtones. Since more than ten years, ecstasy is after cannabis the most frequently used recreational drug by young adults, particularly in the so-called techno-scene. However, according to a recent survey there is an increasing trend for a revival of classic amphetamine and hallucinogen abuse, possibly due to the concern about the potential neurotoxicity and somatic risks associated with ecstasy use.

[Psychotropic mushrooms and plants].

There are a lot of medical applications of psychotropic plants. However, there are many more mushrooms and plants with psychotropic effects considered useless by scholar medicine. The resulting regulations make the users criminal law breakers.

[Hawaiian baby rose wood: case report of an argyreia nervosa induced toxic psychosis].

An increase of intoxications in persons using psychoactive plants and mushrooms can be observed. Mainly adolescents are experimenting with this group of plants for its hallucinogenic effects and easy and cheap availability. A case of a toxic psychosis with hallucinations, disturbances of orientation and psychomotoric agitation and anxiety after the intake of Hawaiian baby wood rose seed, an exotic ergotalkaloid containing plant often misused for its hallucinogenic effect is reported.