Thirty-six Hippocratic aphorisms of nephrologic interest.

In this article, we discuss the nephrologic content within Hippocrates' Aphorisms. Although similar attempts have taken place ever since antiquity, we believe that in each era new insights may be gained by examining the aphorisms through the prism of current medical knowledge. Of the 400 aphorisms in the Hippocratic text, we discuss the 36 that we consider to be most relevant to nephrology.

Substitution of renal function through skin catharsis: evidence from the classical period to the Middle Ages.

The skin's cleansing capacity has been known for centuries and has been used therapeutically and extensively for a great number of diseases. We studied the historical evolution of the methods used for catharsis through the skin, particularly for those in renal failure, by reviewing most of the existing ancient Greek and Byzantine codices dealing with the skin's cleansing capacity. From the fragments cited in this article, it is evident that the ancient medical writers were well aware of the mechanism of perspiration, and through this process the excretion of several body toxins, they knew about renal failure as well as the influence of environmental temperature on blood purification via the skin.

A history of natural membranes in dialysis.

Nature uses various natural membranes to eliminate toxic substances from the blood, mainly in renal failure. The membranes used for this purpose are predominantly those of the gastrointestinal system and the skin. Humans tried to imitate nature, and employed the same membranes for blood purification in patients with renal failure.

Uroscopy in Byzantium.

Macroscopic examination of the urine has been used since time immemorial for the diagnosis and prognosis of nearly every disease. Although the great fathers of antiquity, such as Hippocrates and Galen, were involved in the practice, it reached its heights during the Middle Ages. This article divides the Middle Ages into three periods--early, middle and late--and studies the use of the method and the contributions of its particular practitioners in the eastern part of the former east Roman Empire (Byzantium).

Four different ways of philanthropic aid to the blind in medieval eastern Christendom.

The care of the blind, either as medical treatment or as divine therapy, has probably been the most ancient form of help for ill people. However, it was during the Byzantine Empire (325-1453 AD) that the state organized a 'blindness relief' plan as part of a widespread public health system. Our sources for the subject include medical writings, state decrees, Saint's 'vitae' and representations of relevant works of art.

Supernumerary eyes and man's search for hyper-vision: a historical review of relevant representational arts.

In this paper we present examples of man's identification of superiority with visual hyper-efficiency. From Babylonian, Egyptian, Minoan and Biblical times, the eye was the symbol of the master or the inspector. Similarly, a being or deity that was endowed with multiple eyes--with or without multiple heads--was considered to be extra powerful.