Surface engineering of 3D-printed polylactic acid scaffolds with polydopamine and 4-methoxycinnamic acid-chitosan nanoparticles for bone regeneration.

Bone remodeling, a continuous process of resorption and formation, is essential for maintaining skeletal integrity and mineral balance. However, in cases of critical bone defects where the natural bone remodeling capacity is insufficient, medical intervention is necessary. Traditional bone grafts have limitations such as donor site morbidity and availability, driving the search for bioengineered scaffold alternatives.