Assessment of exposure to pesticides and the knowledge, attitude and practice among farmers of western Bhutan.

An estimated 69% of the population of Bhutan is engaged in agriculture. Farmers are exposed to a wide variety of pesticides during the preparation, transport, storage, mixing and application of pesticides posing a significant health risk. A controlled cross-sectional study of farmers in selected sites of Bhutan was conducted to characterize the level of exposure to pesticides and assess their knowledge attitude and practice on the safe handling of pesticides.

The female Euscepes postfasciatus refractory period is induced by the male but length is determined by the female.

Females of many animals mate multiple times during their lives (i.e., polyandry).

Evidence based disease control methods in potato production: a systematic map protocol.

Background: Several challenges, e.g. global trade, population growth, and climate change create future challenges for food production and food safety.

Spatio-temporal distribution of DMI and SDHI fungicide resistance of Zymoseptoria tritici throughout Europe based on frequencies of key target-site alterations.

Background: Over the past decade, demethylation inhibitor (DMI) and succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor (SDHI) fungicides have been extensively used to control to septoria tritici blotch, caused by Zymoseptoria tritici on wheat. This has led to the development and selection of alterations in the target-site enzymes (CYP51 and SDH, respectively).

Results: Taking advantage of newly and previously developed qPCR assays, the frequency of key alterations associated with DMI (CYP51-S524T) and SDHI (SDHC-T79N/I, C-N86S and C-H152R) resistance was assessed in Z.

Draft Genome Sequence of a Novel " Liberibacter" Species Detected in a Species from Bhutan.

The draft genome sequence of a novel " Liberibacter" species detected in an unidentified species of (Rutaceae) collected in Bhutan is reported. The total length is 1,408,989 bp with 1,169 coding sequences in 96 contigs, a GC content of 37.3%, and 76 to 77% average nucleotide identity with several other " Liberibacter" species.

Characterization of the bacterial communities of psyllids associated with Rutaceae in Bhutan by high throughput sequencing.

Background: Several plant-pathogenic bacteria are transmitted by insect vector species that often also act as hosts. In this interface, these bacteria encounter plant endophytic, insect endosymbiotic and other microbes. Here, we used high throughput sequencing to examine the bacterial communities of five different psyllids associated with citrus and related plants of Rutaceae in Bhutan: Diaphorina citri, Diaphorina communis, Cornopsylla rotundiconis, Cacopsylla heterogena and an unidentified Cacopsylla sp.

Phylogeography of Diaphorina citri (Hemiptera: Liviidae) and its primary endosymbiont, 'Candidatus Carsonella ruddii': an evolutionary approach to host-endosymbiont interaction.

Background: In insects, little is known about the co-evolution between their primary endosymbionts and hosts at the intraspecific level. This study examined co-diversification between the notorious agricultural pest Diaphorina citri and its primary endosymbionts (P-endosymbiont), 'Candidatus Carsonella ruddii' at the population level.

Results: Maximum likelihood, haplotype network, principal components and Bayesian clustering identified three lineages for D.

Geographic and Research Center Origins of Rice Resistance to Asian Planthoppers and Leafhoppers: Implications for Rice Breeding and Gene Deployment.

This study examines aspects of virulence to resistant rice varieties among planthoppers and leafhoppers. Using a series of resistant varieties, brown planthopper, , virulence was assessed in seedlings and early-tillering plants at seven research centers in South and East Asia. Virulence of the whitebacked planthopper, , in Taiwan and the Philippines was also assessed.

Male white grub beetles prefer the pheromone composition of young females in the field.

Females of the white grub beetle, Dasylepida ishigakiensis, release both (R)- and (S)-2-butanol as sex pheromones, but the males are only attracted to (R)-2-butanol. In laboratory-reared females, the proportion of the (R)-isomer decreased significantly as their calling opportunities increased and as they aged. We examined whether such qualitative changes also occur in field populations.

One-step multiplex quantitative RT-PCR for the simultaneous detection of viroids and phytoplasmas of pome fruit trees.

A one-step multiplex real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) based on TaqMan chemistry was developed for the simultaneous detection of Pear blister canker viroid and Apple scar skin viroid along with universal detection of phytoplasmas, in pome trees. Total nucleic acids (TNAs) extraction was performed according to a modified CTAB protocol. Primers and TaqMan MGB probes for specific detection of the two viroids were designed in this study, whereas for phytoplasma detection published universal primers and probe were used, with the difference that the later was modified to carry a MGB quencher.

Seasonal phenology of Bactrocera minax (Diptera: Tephritidae) in western Bhutan.

The Chinese citrus fruit fly, Bactrocera (Tetradacus) minax (Enderlein), is one of the major citrus pests in Bhutan and can cause >50% mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) fruit drop. As part of the development of a management strategy for the fly in mandarin orchards, population monitoring and experimental manipulations were carried out to determine: (i) adult emergence period; (ii) adult phenology patterns; (iii) period of crop susceptibility; and (iv) period from fruit drop to pupation. In western Bhutan, adult flies emerge from the overwintering pupal stage in late April/early May.

First Report of Root Rot and Stem Canker Caused by Phytophthora cambivora on Noble Fir (Abies procera) for Bough Production in Norway.

In 2004, damages resembling those caused by Phytophthora spp. were observed in a 15-year-old bough plantation of noble fir (Abies procera). When removing bark upward from the roots and base of a diseased tree, a reddish brown discoloration with distinct borders to surrounding wood appeared.

Development of a highly sensitive nested-PCR method using a single closed tube for detection of Fusarium culmorum in cereal samples.

Aims: The aim of the study was to develop a sensitive detection method of Fusarium culmorum contamination in cereal samples.

Methods And Results: A nested-PCR method using a single closed tube was developed for the detection of F. culmorum in infected cereal samples.

Molecular cloning, characterization, and expression studies of a novel chitinase gene (ech30) from the mycoparasite Trichoderma atroviride strain P1.

We describe the cloning and characterization of a single copy gene from Trichoderma atroviride P1 encoding a novel 30 kDa chitinase, Ech30. Ech30 is a family 18 chitinase showing low sequence similarity to other Trichoderma chitinases. Real-time quantitative RT-PCR studies revealed that expression of the ech30 gene was induced by the presence of Botrytis cinerea in plate confrontation assays, but hardly by chitin in liquid cultures.

Effect of freezing and thawing on microbial activity and glyphosate degradation in two Norwegian soils.

Little research has been done on pesticide dissipation in cold climates and there is a need to focus on the influence of climate on pesticide degradation in soil. Glyphosate, N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine, is a herbicide frequently used for controlling perennial weeds through application after harvest and was used as a model compound for this study. The effect of freeze-thaw activity on the availability of glyphosate in soil, and consequently its mineralization by soil microorganisms, was studied through laboratory incubations of repacked soil cores treated with 14C-labelled glyphosate and subjected to different freeze-thaw treatments.

Fertility status and distribution of mating type alleles of the rice blast fungus, Magnaporthe grisea in northern Iran.

This study was carried out using 155 monoconidial isolates collected from different areas of two major rice growing provinces in northern Iran, including 94 isolates from Guilan and 59 isolates from Mazandaran. Among 94 isolates from Guilan, 92 and two isolates recovered from rice and crabgrass (Digitaria sp.), respectively.

Use of a Rainfall Frequency Threshold to Adjust a Degree-Day Model of Ascospore Maturity of Venturia inaequalis.

Estimates of ascospore maturity generated by a model developed previously in New Hampshire, United States, were compared with the cumulative release of ascospores in southern Norway as monitored by volumetric spore traps at one site for 12 years, and at two additional sites for 2 years. In locations and years with frequent rain events, model-estimated ascospore maturity closely approximated observed ascospore release. However, in years with protracted dry periods of 1 to 3 weeks with no or little rain, not only was spore release delayed, but release continued to lag behind predicted maturity even after several rain events subsequent to the dry interval.

First Report of Pythium tracheiphilum Causing Wilt and Leaf Blight on Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) in Spain.

Since 2002, a disease on lettuce plants (cv. Estibaliz) was observed in the field and in greenhouses in the Principality of Asturias in northern Spain. The disease was estimated to cause losses of 20% in field-grown crops during the summer.

A Comparison of Methods Used to Estimate the Maturity and Release of Ascospores of Venturia inaequalis.

Maturation and release of ascospores of Venturia inaequalis were assessed at Geneva and Highland, NY, and at Durham, NH, by microscopic examination of crushed pseudothecia excised from infected apple leaves that were collected weekly from orchards (squash mounts) in 14 siteyear combinations. Airborne ascospore dose was monitored at each location in each year of the study by volumetric spore traps. Additional laboratory assessments were made at Geneva to quantify release from infected leaf segments upon wetting (discharge tests).

Genetic variation between Phytophthora cactorum isolates differing in their ability to cause crown rot in strawberry.

Analysis of 44 isolates of Phytophthora cactorum, isolated from strawberry and other hosts, by AFLP showed that the crown rot pathotype is different from leather rot isolates and from P. cactorum isolated from other hosts. 16 of 23 crown rot isolates, including isolates from Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand, were identical in an analysis based on 96 polymorphic bands from seven primer combinations.

First Report of Solanum physalifolium as a Host Plant for Phytophthora infestans in Sweden.

In the early summer of 2003, lesions resembling those caused by Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary on potato were observed on Solanum physalifolium Rusby var. nitidibaccatum (Bitter) Edmonds (2) that was growing as a weed in a parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) field in southern Sweden.

Use of a Plastic Rain Shield Reduces Fruit Decay and Need for Fungicides in Sweet Cherry.

It has been shown previously that covering sweet cherry trees (Prunus avium L.) with rain shields made of polyethylene or other waterproof, light-transmitting material prior to harvest to prevent fruit cracking will reduce fruit decay by various fungi. In the present work, the effects of extending the covering period on fruit decay, fruit quality, and the potential reduction in number of fungicide applications were investigated.

First Report of Citrus Greening Disease and Associated Bacterium "Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus" from Bhutan.

During July 2002, surveys of mandarin orchards were conducted in Punakha Valley and Wangdue districts of Bhutan. Symptoms of the greening disease were observed in most of the orchard. The incidence of disease was recorded up to 30% in 24 private orchards with more than 5,000 trees total.