A 21st-century update of Claude Bernard's Theory about the Constancy of the Internal Environment.

The discovery of the functioning of intra- and extracellular ion compartments and cell membranes' operation opened the possibility of extending Claude Bernard's theory to intracellular ions. In contrast, by underestimating the role of ions, many misconceptions have prevailed. The author points out that maintaining the constancy of carbon dioxide is especially important.

Chronic psychic stress can cause metabolic syndrome through mild hypercapnia.

The author presents a new psychosomatic stress model. All the elements of the hypothesis are well known but, in this context, are published first. The following are the most critical aspects of the recommended chronic stress model.

A new hypothesis on vascular calcification: the exhausting buffer syndrome (EBS).

Here we propose that the Western world lifestyle disrupts phosphate metabolism and homeostasis due to caloric or acidic hyperphagia. Psychic factors such as social defeat due to stressed social coexistence characterized by reduced activity and chronic hypoventilation (hypercapnia) also play a role. At least two mechanisms mediate the harmful vascular effects of phosphates with intracellular acidosis being a feature in both of them.

Pathophysiology and clinical consequences of arterial blood gases and pH after cardiac arrest.

Post cardiac arrest syndrome is associated with high morbidity and mortality, which is related not only to a poor neurological outcome but also to respiratory and cardiovascular dysfunctions. The control of gas exchange, and in particular oxygenation and carbon dioxide levels, is fundamental in mechanically ventilated patients after resuscitation, as arterial blood gases derangement might have important effects on the cerebral blood flow and systemic physiology.In particular, the pathophysiological role of carbon dioxide (CO) levels is strongly underestimated, as its alterations quickly affect also the changes of intracellular pH, and consequently influence metabolic energy and oxygen demand.

Hypocapnia and mental stress can trigger vicious circles in critically ill patients due to energy imbalance: a hypothesis presented through cardiogenic pulmonary oedema.

The pathophysiologic significance of hypocapnia is strongly underestimated both in functional and organic diseases. Alterations of carbon dioxide levels immediately appear in the cytoplasm, causing abrupt pH changes. Compensatory mechanisms develop with latency, so intracellular alkalosis or acidosis can affect metabolism for hours/days.

New aspects in the pathomechanism of diseases of civilization, particularly psychosomatic disorders. Part 2. Chronic hypocapnia and hypercapnia in the medical practice.

The authors seek to find new connections between recent results of biology and older theories. This paper aims to assemble the jigsaw puzzle. The theoretical background of the hypothesis was described in the previous issue of the journal (Sikter et al.

New aspects in the pathomechanism of diseases of civilization, particularly psychosomatic disorders. Part 1. Theoretical background of a hypothesis.

The stress defence-cascade is mostly not biphasic as Cannon thought, the sympathicotonic stress response is preceded by a vagotonic phase called freeze response. Alteration of the carbon dioxide level plays an important role during defence-cascade as its changes interfere with stress hormones, e.g.

The role of carbon dioxide (and intracellular pH) in the pathomechanism of several mental disorders. Are the diseases of civilization caused by learnt behaviour, not the stress itself?

The role of carbon dioxide (CO2) is underestimated in the pathomechanism of neuropsychiatric disorders, though it is an important link between psyche and corpus. The actual spiritual status also influences respiration (we start breathing rarely, frequently, irregularly, etc.) causing pH alteration in the organism; on the other hand the actual cytosolic pH of neurons is one of the main modifiers of Ca2+-conductance, hence breathing directly, quickly, and effectively influences the second messenger system through Ca2+-currents.