Intake of α-linolenic acid is not consistently associated with a lower risk of peripheral artery disease: results from a Danish cohort study.

Intake of the plant-derived n-3 fatty acid α-linolenic acid (ALA) has been associated with anti-atherosclerotic properties. However, information on the association between ALA intake and development of peripheral artery disease (PAD) is lacking. In this follow-up study, we investigated the association between dietary intake of ALA and the rate of PAD among middle-aged Danish men and women enrolled into the Danish Diet, Cancer and Health cohort between 1993 and 1997.

Adipose tissue content of alpha-linolenic acid and the risk of ischemic stroke and ischemic stroke subtypes: A Danish case-cohort study.

Background: The plant-derived omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Objective: We have investigated associations between the content of ALA in adipose tissue and the risk of ischemic stroke and its subtypes.

Methods: Incident cases of ischemic stroke among participants enrolled into the Danish Diet, Cancer and Health cohort (n = 57,053) were identified by linkage with the Danish National Patient Register.

Omega-6 fatty acids and inflammation.

Inflammation is a normal process that is part of host defence and tissue healing. However, excessive or unresolved inflammation can lead to uncontrolled tissue damage, pathology and disease. In humans on a Western diet, the omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid arachidonic acid (ARA) makes a significant contribution to the fatty acids present in the membrane phospholipids of cells involved in inflammation.

Very long-chain n-3 fatty acids and human health: fact, fiction and the future.

EPA and DHA appear to be the most important n-3 fatty acids, but roles for n-3 docosapentaenoic acid are now also emerging. Intakes of EPA and DHA are usually low, typically below those recommended. Increased intakes result in higher concentrations of EPA and DHA in blood lipids, cells and tissues.

Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: from molecules to man.

Inappropriate, excessive or uncontrolled inflammation contributes to a range of human diseases. Inflammation involves a multitude of cell types, chemical mediators and interactions. The present article will describe nutritional and metabolic aspects of omega-6 (n-6) and omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids and explain the roles of bioactive members of those fatty acid families in inflammatory processes.

Increased dietary α-linolenic acid has sex-specific effects upon eicosapentaenoic acid status in humans: re-examination of data from a randomised, placebo-controlled, parallel study.

Background: There is a metabolic pathway by which mammals can convert the omega-3 (n-3) essential fatty acid α-linolenic acid (ALA) into longer-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC n-3 PUFA) including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). As far as we know there are currently no studies that have specifically examined sex differences in the LC n-3 PUFA response to increased dietary ALA intake in humans, although acute studies with isotope-labelled ALA identified that women have a significantly greater capacity to synthesise EPA and DHA from ALA compared to men.

Findings: Available data from a placebo-controlled, randomised study were re-examined to identify whether there are sex differences in the LC n-3 PUFA response to increased dietary ALA intake in humans.

Biomarkers of immunity and inflammation for use in nutrition interventions: International Life Sciences Institute European Branch work on selection criteria and interpretation.

In order to gain better insight into meaningful effects of nutrition on immune function, there is a need for guidance on the assessment and interpretation of immune markers. However, there is no consensus as to which markers best represent the various aspects of immunity, including acute, chronic or low-grade inflammation. International Life Sciences Institute European Branch has commissioned several expert groups comprising individuals from different backgrounds including academia, government and the food industry to prepare descriptive and guidance documents on this topic.

Omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and allergic diseases in infancy and childhood.

There may be a causal relationship between intake of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and childhood allergic diseases. This can be explained by plausible biological mechanisms involving eicosanoid mediators produced from the n-6 PUFA arachidonic acid. Long chain n-3 PUFAs are found in fish and fish oils.

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory processes: nutrition or pharmacology?

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are n-3 fatty acids found in oily fish and fish oil supplements. These fatty acids are able to inhibit partly a number of aspects of inflammation including leucocyte chemotaxis, adhesion molecule expression and leucocyte-endothelial adhesive interactions, production of eicosanoids like prostaglandins and leukotrienes from the n-6 fatty acid arachidonic acid, production of inflammatory cytokines and T cell reactivity. In parallel, EPA gives rise to eicosanoids that often have lower biological potency than those produced from arachidonioc acid and EPA and DHA give rise to anti-inflammatory and inflammation resolving resolvins and protectins.

The role of marine omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids in inflammatory processes, atherosclerosis and plaque stability.

Atherosclerosis has an important inflammatory component and acute cardiovascular events can be initiated by inflammatory processes occurring in advanced plaques. Fatty acids influence inflammation through a variety of mechanisms; many of these are mediated by, or associated with, the fatty acid composition of cell membranes. Human inflammatory cells are typically rich in the n-6 fatty acid arachidonic acid, but the contents of arachidonic acid and of the marine n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) can be altered through oral administration of EPA and DHA.

The role of the circadian clock system in nutrition and metabolism.

Mammals have an endogenous timing system in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamic region of the brain. This internal clock system is composed of an intracellular feedback loop that drives the expression of molecular components and their constitutive protein products to oscillate over a period of about 24 h (hence the term 'circadian'). These circadian oscillations bring about rhythmic changes in downstream molecular pathways and physiological processes such as those involved in nutrition and metabolism.

Influence of marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on immune function and a systematic review of their effects on clinical outcomes in rheumatoid arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease of the joints and bones. The n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) arachidonic acid (ARA) is the precursor of inflammatory eicosanoids which are involved in RA. Some therapies used in RA target ARA metabolism.

β2-1 Fructans have a bifidogenic effect in healthy middle-aged human subjects but do not alter immune responses examined in the absence of an in vivo immune challenge: results from a randomised controlled trial.

β2-1 fructans are considered to be prebiotics. Current literature indicates that β2-1 fructans may modulate some aspects of immune function, improve the host's ability to respond to certain intestinal infections, and modify some inflammatory outcomes in human subjects. However, there is a need to find out more about the modulation of immune markers by β2-1 fructans in humans.

Fatty acids and inflammation: the cutting edge between food and pharma.

Inflammation underlies many common conditions and diseases. Fatty acids can influence inflammation through a variety of mechanisms, including acting via cell surface and intracellular receptors/sensors that control inflammatory cell signalling and gene expression patterns. Some effects of fatty acids on inflammatory cells appear to be mediated by, or at least are associated with, changes in fatty acid composition of cell membranes.

Is there a role for fatty acids in early life programming of the immune system?

There may be a causal relationship between n-6 PUFA intake and allergic disease and there are biologically plausible mechanisms, involving eicosanoid mediators of the n-6 PUFA arachidonic acid, that could explain this. There is some evidence that high linoleic acid intake is linked with increased risk of atopic sensitisation and allergic manifestations. Fish and fish oils are sources of long-chain n-3 PUFA and these fatty acids act to oppose the actions of n-6 PUFA.

Rationale and use of n-3 fatty acids in artificial nutrition.

Lipids traditionally used in artificial nutrition are based on n-6 fatty acid-rich vegetable oils like soyabean oil. This may not be optimal because it may present an excessive supply of linoleic acid. One alternative to the use of soyabean oil is its partial replacement by fish oil, which contains n-3 fatty acids.

A novel effect of eicosapentaenoic acid: improved diaphragm strength in endotoxemia.

Respiratory muscle weakness is commonplace in critically ill patients, impairing the ability of those patients to breath, prolonging the need for ventilatory support, and increasing the likelihood of respiratory failure when that support is removed. Infections and endotoxemia reduce respiratory muscle strength, probably acting through several mechanisms. It is reported that the omega-3 fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) attenuates the loss in diaphragm specific force generation (that is, diaphragm strength) induced by bacterial endotoxin treatment in rats.

Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes.

Long chain fatty acids influence inflammation through a variety of mechanisms; many of these are mediated by, or at least associated with, changes in fatty acid composition of cell membranes. Changes in these compositions can modify membrane fluidity, cell signaling leading to altered gene expression, and the pattern of lipid mediator production. Cell involved in the inflammatory response are typically rich in the n-6 fatty acid arachidonic acid, but the contents of arachidonic acid and of the n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) can be altered through oral administration of EPA and DHA.

Effects of a fish oil containing lipid emulsion on plasma phospholipid fatty acids, inflammatory markers, and clinical outcomes in septic patients: a randomized, controlled clinical trial.

Introduction: The effect of parenteral fish oil in septic patients is not widely studied. This study investigated the effects of parenteral fish oil on plasma phospholipid fatty acids, inflammatory mediators, and clinical outcomes.

Methods: Twenty-five patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome or sepsis, and predicted to need parenteral nutrition were randomized to receive either a 50:50 mixture of medium-chain fatty acids and soybean oil or a 50:40:10 mixture of medium-chain fatty acids, soybean oil and fish oil.

Atopy risk in infants and children in relation to early exposure to fish, oily fish, or long-chain omega-3 fatty acids: a systematic review.

There are two main families of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), the n-6 and the n-3 families. It has been suggested that there is a causal relationship between n-6 PUFA intake and allergic disease, and there are biologically plausible mechanisms, involving eicosanoid mediators of the n-6 PUFA arachidonic acid, that could explain this. Fish and fish oils are sources of long-chain n-3 PUFAs and these fatty acids act to oppose the actions of n-6 PUFAs.

The 2008 ESPEN Sir David Cuthbertson Lecture: Fatty acids and inflammation--from the membrane to the nucleus and from the laboratory bench to the clinic.

Many chronic conditions involve excessive inflammation that is damaging to host tissues. Excessive or inappropriate inflammation and immunosuppression are components of the response to surgery, trauma, injury and infection in some individuals and these can lead, progressively, to sepsis and septic shock. Hyperinflammation is characterised by the production of inflammatory cytokines, eicosanoids and other inflammatory mediators, while the immunosuppression is characterised by impairment of antigen presentation and of certain T cell responses.

Hsp70 expression in monocytes from patients with peripheral arterial disease and healthy controls: monocyte Hsp70 in PAD.

Background: Heat shock proteins (HSP) are induced during cellular stress. Their role is to chaperone cellular proteins giving protection from denaturation and ultimately preventing cell death. Monocytes are key cells involved in atherosclerosis and are highly responsive to HSP induction.

Hot topics in parenteral nutrition. Rationale for using new lipid emulsions in parenteral nutrition and a review of the trials performed in adults.

Lipids traditionally used in parenteral nutrition are based on n-6 fatty acid-rich vegetable oils such as soyabean oil. This practice may not be optimal because it may present an excessive supply of linoleic acid. Alternatives to the use of soyabean oil include its partial replacement by so-called medium-chain TAG (MCT), olive oil or fish oil, either alone or in combination.

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and human health outcomes.

Current intakes of very long chain omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are low in most individuals living in Western countries. A good natural source of these fatty acids is seafood, especially oily fish. Fish oil capsules contain these fatty acids too.