What kind of network is the brain?

The different areas of the cerebral cortex are linked by a network of white matter, comprising the myelinated axons of pyramidal cells. Is this network a neural net, in the sense that representations of the world are embodied in the structure of the net, its pattern of nodes, and connections? Or is it a communications network, where the same physical substrate carries different information from moment to moment? This question is part of the larger question of whether the brain is better modeled by connectionism or by symbolic artificial intelligence (AI), but we review it in the specific context of the psychophysics of stimulus comparison and the format and protocol of information transmission over the long-range tracts of the brain.

A Rat Model of Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome Causes Phenotype-Associated Morphological Changes and Hypofunction of the Adrenal Gland.

Background: Rats exposed to chronic predator scent stress mimic the phenotype of complex post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in humans, including altered adrenal morphology and function. High- and low-anxiety phenotypes have been described in rats exposed to predator scent stress (PSS). This study aimed to determine whether these high- and low-anxiety phenotypes correlate with changes in adrenal histomorphology and corticosteroid production.

Bongard and Smirnov on the tetrachromacy of extra-foveal vision.

In Moscow in the 1950's, the physicist M. M. Bongard developed the use of silent substitution to establish the number of dimensions of human or animal colour vision and to derive colour-matching functions either for whole organisms or for individual neuronal channels.

Binucleated and Multinucleated Neurons are Formed by Fusion.

In the era of molecular biology and atomic force microscopy, some important macroscopic issues such as simultaneous bidirectional axonal flow or neuronal multinucleosis remain unaddressed. However, these issues have to be addressed, because they distort the results of our current achievements. Using videorecording technique, we studied adhesive contacts between neurons and their processes and kinetics of anastomosis retraction between the cell bodies up to their complete fusion with introduction of neurites into the cell cytoplasm and formation of binuclear cells.

Glucocorticoid-Dependent Mechanisms of Brain Tolerance to Hypoxia.

Adaptation of organisms to stressors is coordinated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), which involves glucocorticoids (GCs) and glucocorticoid receptors (GRs). Although the effects of GCs are well characterized, their impact on brain adaptation to hypoxia/ischemia is still understudied. The brain is not only the most susceptible to hypoxic injury, but also vulnerable to GC-induced damage, which makes studying the mechanisms of brain hypoxic tolerance and resistance to stress-related elevation of GCs of great importance.

SARS-Cov-2 Damage on the Nervous System and Mental Health.

The World Health Organization declared the pandemic situation caused by SARSCoV- 2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2) in March 2020, but the detailed pathophysiological mechanisms of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are not yet completely understood. Therefore, to date, few therapeutic options are available for patients with mildmoderate or serious disease. In addition to systemic and respiratory symptoms, several reports have documented various neurological symptoms and impairments of mental health.

Double-Edged Sword of Vitamin D3 Effects on Primary Neuronal Cultures in Hypoxic States.

The use of vitamin D3 along with traditional therapy opens up new prospects for increasing the adaptive capacity of nerve cells to the effects of a wide range of stress factors, including hypoxia-ischemic processes. However, questions about prophylactic and therapeutic doses of vitamin D3 remain controversial. The purpose of our study was to analyze the effects of vitamin D3 at different concentrations on morpho-functional characteristics of neuron-glial networks in hypoxia modeling in vitro.

[Epigenetic regulation of adaptogenesis by pathology and aging.].

The organism adaptive possibilities by pathology and aging are discussed in account of the epigenetic. The organism adaptation to inner and external factors is carried out by organism unite humoral protective system, inclusive hypothalamus-hypophysis-pineal and hypothalamus-hypophysis-thymus axises. AEDG, AEDP, EDR, KED, EW, KE short peptides are the epigenetic regulators of gene expression and protein synthesis, which can be involve to the adaptation by stress and in the activation of hypothalamus-hypophysis-pineal and hypothalamus-hypophysis-thymus axises.

Development of molecular tools for diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease that are based on detection of amyloidogenic proteins.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia that usually occurs among older people. AD results from neuronal degeneration that leads to the cognitive impairment and death. AD is incurable, typically develops over the course of many years and is accompanied by a loss of functional autonomy, making a patient completely dependent on family members and/or healthcare workers.

Comparative study of blood pressure and echocardiographic values of male cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis).

Background: Primates represent a unique object for biomedical research, in particular in the field of physiology and pathology of the cardiovascular system. Echocardiography is the most important non-invasive method for the intravital study of the heart structure and function, intracardiac and systemic haemodynamics. The available data on reference values of echocardiographic parameters in primates are limited.

[Age-related issues of the quality of life in hearing impaired patients.].

The aim of the research was to study the quality of life in hearing impaired patients of different age. 100 patients referred to the city audiology centre because of their hearing disorders were examined: 50 patients from 34 to 59 years old and 50 patients from 60 years and older, from which 32 patients were of older age (60 to 74 years old) and 18 of oldest age (75 to 86 years old). A degree of hearing loss was assessed according to results of pure tone audiometry.

COVID-19 Disease and Vitamin D: A Mini-Review.

Novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2, for which there is no effective treatment except employing prevention strategies, has already instituted significant number of deaths. In this review, we provide a scientific view on the potential role of vitamin D in SARS-CoV-2 virus/COVID-19 disease. Vitamin D is well-known to play a significant role in maintaining the immune health of an individual.

[Characteristic of age-dependent changes in pial arterial vessels endothelium-dependent hyperpolarization in normotensive and spontaneously hypertensive rats.].

A comparative study of changes in the contribution of endothelium-dependent hyperpolarization (EDH) induced by activation of the intermediate-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels (IKса) channels and the contribution of NO in pial arterial vessels dilation to acetylcholine (ACh) in normotensive (WKY) and spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) rats at the age of 4 and 18 months was conducted. It was found that in WKY, the EDH is mainly expressed in the group of small pial arterial vessels. During aging, the contribution of EDH to the dilatation of small (diameter less than 20 microns) and medium (20-40 microns) vessels decreases, while it increases in arteries with a diameter of more than 40 microns.

[Audiological correlates of age-related manifestations of auditory disorders.].

The aim of the study was a comparative analysis of complaints and audiological findings in patients of the audiological center depending on their age. The results of the examination of 300 firstly consulted patients (random sample) are presented. The group of young patients (19-44 years) included 40 people; middle age (45-59 years) - 62 people; elderly (60-74 years) - 100 people; senile age (75-90 years) - 98 people.

Thymalin: Activation of Differentiation of Human Hematopoietic Stem Cells.

Thymalin is a polypeptide complex isolated from the thymus and regulating the functions of the immune system. Thymalin is effective in therapy of acute respiratory syndrome, chronic obstructive bronchitis, and other immunopathology. Thymalin increases functional activity of T lymphocytes, but the targeted molecular mechanism of its biological activity requires further study.

Participation of NO-Dependent Mechanisms in the Effects of Increased Systemic Level of Interleukin-1β on Pial Microvessels under Conditions of Acute Hypoxia.

We studied the effect of increased systemic levels of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β on the vasomotor reactions of pial microvessels in anesthetized rats under conditions of experimentally simulated progressively increasing acute normobaric hypoxia. Vital microscopy showed that more pronounced dilatation of pial vessels in response to IL-1β under hypoxic conditions was almost completely prevented by pretreatment with non-specific NO synthase blocker L-NAME. These findings indicate the involvement of NO-dependent mechanisms in the vasodilator effect of proinflammatory cytokines under conditions of acute hypoxic exposure.

Separation in the visual field has divergent effects on discriminating the speed and the direction of motion.

Local motion in a visual scene allows the detection of prey or predator and predicts their future positions. Relative motion segregates objects and reveals their 3D relationships. 'Optic flow' - the motion of texture across the field - guides locomotion and balance.

Effects of Stress Exposure during Adolescent Period on Inflammatory Pain Response, Psychoemotional Behavior, and Action of Antidepressants in Prenatally Stressed Adult Male Rats.

We studied the effects of stress exposure during the adolescent period of development (SAPD) on the parameters of inflammatory painful response and the level of depression-like behavior in prenatally stressed adult male rats. In addition, we analyzed the effects of selective serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine and 5-HT receptor agonist buspirone injected chronically to pregnant mothers for correction of behavioral disturbances caused by prenatal stress in their adult male progeny. In the formalin test, SAPD decreased integrated at the supraspinal level pain-like response that was increased by prenatal stress; under these conditions, buspirone and fluoxetine were ineffective in contrast to their antinociceptive action on spinally integrated pain-like response increased by SAPD.

The Role of Hydrogen Sulfide in the Dilatation of Mesenteric Lymphatic Vessels in Bulls.

We studied the effects and mechanisms of action of NaHS, an HS donor, on bovine isolated mesenteric efferent lymphatic vessels pre-contracted with phenylephrine. NaHS induced concentration-dependent relaxation of lymphatic vessels. Removal of the endothelium reduced, but did not completely abolish the relaxing effect of NaHS.

Imipridone enhances vascular relaxation via FOXO1 pathway.

Cardiovascular complications are a side effect of cancer therapy, potentially through reduced blood vessel function. ONC201 (TIC10) is currently used in phase 2 clinical trials to treat high-grade gliomas. TIC10 is a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) inhibitor that induces apoptosis via upregulation of TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand, which via stimulation of FOXO and death receptor could increase eNOS upregulation.

Relaxing Effect of Hydrogen Sulfide on Isolated Bovine Mesenteric Lymph Nodes.

We studied the effects and mechanisms of action of NaHS, an HS donor, on isolated phenylephrine-precontracted bovine mesenteric lymph nodes. NaHS induced concentration-dependent relaxation of lymph nodes. Removal of the endothelium reduced, but did not abolish the relaxing effect of NaHS.

[Neuroprotective effects of peptides.].

Neurodegenerative diseases are a heterogeneous group of nervous system pathologies. They are found mainly in people of an older age group. The incidence of neurodegenerative diseases is continuously growing due to an increase in the average life expectancy of the population.

Respiratory Muscle Strength and Ventilatory Function Outcome: Differences Between Trained Athletes and Healthy Untrained Persons.

It is known that the maximum mouth inspiratory pressure (MIP) and expiratory pressure (MEP) vary with age, weight, height, and skeletal muscle mass. However, the influence of physical training on ventilatory function outcomes is an area of limited understanding. The aim of this study was to investigate the respiratory muscle strength and its relation to spirometry variables in untrained healthy persons versus trained athletes.

[The influence of polypeptide liver complex and tetrapeptide KEDA on organism physiological function in norm and age-related pathology.].

The applying of many drugs in elderly and old people often is the reason of liver dysfunction. Thereat, the risk of liver fibroid induration, acute and chronic hepatitis increases during aging. It is the reason to find new, effective and harmless hepatoprotectors.

[Short peptides: regulation of skin function during aging.].

Short peptides are applied for supporting skin function during ageing, because they can permeate the intact stratum corneum of the epidermis and affect the cells of the dermis. Short peptides are part of natural metabolism of cells and many of them have geroprotective properties. In the review we are considering the base sorts of peptides that are used for normalized skin fibroblasts function: matrikines, carnosine, collagen peptides, cytokine and growth factor analogs, defensins, immunoprotective peptides and polyfunctional peptides.