Bimodal spore release heights in the water column enhance local retention and population connectivity of bull kelp, .

Dispersal of reproductive propagules determines recruitment patterns and connectivity among populations and can influence how populations respond to major disturbance events. Dispersal distributions can depend on propagule release strategies. For instance, the bull kelp, , can release propagules (spores) from two heights in the water column ("bimodal release"): at the water surface, directly from the reproductive tissues (sori) on the kelp's blades, and near the seafloor after the sori abscise and sink through the water column.

Indirect effects of a large mammalian herbivore on small mammal populations: Context-dependent variation across habitat types, mammal species, and seasons.

Multiple consumer species frequently co-occur in the same landscape and, through effects on surrounding environments, can interact in direct and indirect ways. These interactions can vary in occurrence and importance, and focusing on this variation is critical for understanding the dynamics of interactions among consumers. Large mammalian herbivores are important engineers of ecosystems worldwide, have substantial impacts on vegetation, and can indirectly affect small-mammal populations.

Lactation and resource limitation affect stress responses, thyroid hormones, immune function, and antioxidant capacity of sea otters ().

Lactation is the most energetically demanding stage of reproduction in female mammals. Increased energetic allocation toward current reproduction may result in fitness costs, although the mechanisms underlying these trade-offs are not well understood. Trade-offs during lactation may include reduced energetic allocation to cellular maintenance, immune response, and survival and may be influenced by resource limitation.