Studies in bacteria and bacterial viruses have led to methods to manipulate and recombine DNA in unique and reproducible ways and to amplify these recombined molecules millions of times. Once properly identified, the recombinant DNA molecules can be used in various ways useful in medicine and human biology. There are many applications for recombinant DNA technology. Cloned complementary DNA has been used to produce various human proteins in microorganisms. Insulin and growth hormone have been extensively and successfully tested in humans and insulin has been licensed for sale. Mass production of bacterial and viral antigens with recombinant DNA technology is likely to provide safe and effective vaccines for some disorders for which there is no prevention. The cloned probes for the human alpha- and beta-globin loci, for specific disease genes, such as the Z allele of alpha-antitrypsin, and for random genomic sequences are proving useful for prenatally diagnosing human genetic disorders and preventing their clinical consequences.
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