In this paper, we review and discuss epidemiological and experimental evidence on the effects of daily footwear on gait and life-long health. We consider different types of footwear, including "minimal shoes", and their design features, comparing them to barefoot walking, with a focus on overall gait and the function of the heel pad. Narrative review. We find little evidence for health benefits of most typical shoe design features (e.g., cushioning, raised heels or arch support) for normal walking in healthy individuals, and in several cases (e.g., high heels), there is evidence of detrimental health effects. Based on currently available evidence, we recommend minimal footwear as the default for the general population to stimulate healthy biomechanical aging, with other types of footwear used infrequently or when there is an individual or clinical need.
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