The metazoan tRNA ligase complex (tRNA-LC) has essential roles in tRNA biogenesis and unfolded protein response. Its catalytic subunit RTCB contains a conserved active-site cysteine that is susceptible to metal ion-induced oxidative inactivation. The flavin-containing oxidoreductase PYROXD1 preserves the activity of human tRNA-LC in a NAD(P)H-dependent manner, but its protective mechanism remains elusive. Here, we report a cryogenic electron microscopic structure of the human RTCB-PYROXD1 complex, revealing that PYROXD1 directly interacts with the catalytic center of RTCB through its carboxy-terminal tail. NAD(P)H binding and FAD reduction allosterically control PYROXD1 activity and RTCB recruitment, while reoxidation of PYROXD1 enables timed release of RTCB. PYROXD1 interaction is mutually exclusive with Archease-mediated RTCB guanylylation, and guanylylated RTCB is intrinsically protected from oxidative inactivation. Together, these findings provide a mechanistic framework for the protective function of PYROXD1 that maintains the activity of the tRNA-LC under aerobic conditions.
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