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Filename: drivers/Session_files_driver.php
Line Number: 177
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/index.php
Line: 316
Function: require_once
Severity: Warning
Message: session_start(): Failed to read session data: user (path: /var/lib/php/sessions)
Filename: Session/Session.php
Line Number: 137
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/index.php
Line: 316
Function: require_once
Severity: Warning
Message: file_get_contents(https://...@gmail.com&api_key=61f08fa0b96a73de8c900d749fcb997acc09&a=1): Failed to open stream: HTTP request failed! HTTP/1.1 429 Too Many Requests
Filename: helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line Number: 197
Backtrace:
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 197
Function: file_get_contents
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 271
Function: simplexml_load_file_from_url
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 1057
Function: getPubMedXML
File: /var/www/html/application/helpers/my_audit_helper.php
Line: 3175
Function: GetPubMedArticleOutput_2016
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 575
Function: pubMedSearch_Global
File: /var/www/html/application/controllers/Detail.php
Line: 489
Function: pubMedGetRelatedKeyword
File: /var/www/html/index.php
Line: 316
Function: require_once
Antibodies, which are important research entities in the field of biopharmaceuticals, hold a key position in the global pharmaceutical market. Nanobodies [a single-domain antibody (VHH)] have gradually shown unique advantages due to their specificity, small molecule size, high affinity, good stability, flexible delivery routes, and fast tissue penetration. The importance of nanobodies in the imaging, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases, especially tumors and autoimmune diseases, is increasing. This review addresses key technological hurdles, such as humanization, immunogenicity, and production scalability, and highlights novel strategies to overcome these challenges, including PEGylation, fusion with long-lived serum proteins, and advanced microbial expression systems. This review summarizes the characteristics, production, and industrialization of nanobodies, including nanobody-derived patents and clinical trials, from 2014 to 2023. Finally, the review explores some challenges associated with nanobody technology in biopharmaceuticals, therapeutic interventions, and diagnostic tools and potential solutions.
Download full-text PDF |
Source |
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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11810867 | PMC |
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s11671-025-04200-2 | DOI Listing |
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