New trends in potentiometric sensors: From design to clinical and biomedical applications.

Potentiometry, a well-established electrochemical technique, provides a powerful and versatile method for the sensitive and selective measurement of a variety of analytes by measuring the potential difference between two electrodes, allowing for a direct and rapid readout of ion concentrations. This makes it a valuable tool in a variety of applications including industry, agriculture, forensics, medical, environmental assessment, and pharmaceutical drug analysis, therefore it has received significant attention from the scientific community. Their broad implementation in sensing applications arises through their many benefits, including ease of design, fabrication, and modification; rapid response time; high selectivity; suitability for use with colored and/or turbid solutions; and potential for integration into embedded systems interfaces. Owing to these advantages and diverse applicability, sustained research and development in the field has resulted in the emergence of several notable trends in the field. 3D printing is the most recent technique used in potentiometry which offers many benefits such as improved flexibility and precision in the manufacturing of ion-selective electrodes and rapid prototyping decreases the time needed during optimization of important electrochemical parameters. Additionally, paper-based sensors are cost-effective and versatile platforms for in-field (point-of-care, POC) analysis, permitting rapid determination of a variety of analytes. One of the most interesting applications of potentiometry are wearable sensors which allow for the continuous monitoring of biomarkers, electrolytes and even pharmaceuticals, especially those with a narrow therapeutic index. Herein this review, we discuss several recent trends in potentiometric sensors since 2010, including 3D printing, paper-based devices, and other emerging techniques and the translation of potentiometric systems to wearable devices for the determination of ionic species or pharmaceuticals in biological fluids paving the way to various clinical and biomedical uses.