Advantages and disadvantages of current human enteric virus surrogates in soils and aquifers.

Groundwater is one of the main sources of drinking water, thus, human enteric viruses in groundwater could pose safety risks. Many enteric viruses enter drinking water sources through irrigation or recharge of contaminated water. It is therefore advised to test the potential transport risk with harmless surrogates before wastewater or recycled water is used for irrigation or groundwater recharge. An ideal virus surrogate should be able to mimic the particle size, the surface properties and the inactivation rate of its target virus and should be easy to detect. Particle size should be the first consideration when selecting a suitable virus surrogate in soil and aquifer. The natural bacteriophages could only mimic the viruses that are inherently similar to themselves, and there is only a limited number of readily available bacteriophages. Therefore, once a certain bacteriophage is chosen for study, its particle size, surface properties and inactivation rate are set and unmodifiable for the experiment. Fluorescent microspheres <200 nm could surrogate target viruses in fast-flow subsurface systems, where inactivation can be neglected. However, the current detection limit of fluorescent nanospheres cannot support the detection of small-sized fluorescent microspheres (∼20 nm) through porous media without macropores. Newly emerging DNA tracers not only allow controlling the size and surface properties, but also offer a low detection limit (ideally 1 copy of DNA). Investigating new types of DNA tracers that could either simulate or mimic the inactivation rate of target viruses could widen the use of virus surrogates to study groundwater contamination and drinking water supply safety.