Detection of camellia oil adulteration based on near-infrared spectroscopy and smartphone combined with deep learning and multimodal fusion.

Camellia oil (CO) is known for its nutritional value and health benefits, but its high price makes it susceptible to adulteration. This study developed a binary adulteration system for CO in response to the adulteration of rapeseed oil (RO) into CO that been observed in the market. A total of 243 oil samples adulterated with various concentrations of RO were prepared. The spectral information of the adulterated oil samples was obtained using near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. Additionally, visual data obtained from smartphone-captured images and videos were analysed. Deep-learning models trained on video data reached the highest accuracy of 96.30 %. To improve detection accuracy, a multimodal approach was adopted by combing spectral and visual data. Generally, this study presented a novel method for detecting the authenticity of CO in real time, providing technical support to address increasingly serious food safety concerns and laying the foundation for future rapid online detection using smartphones.