The Benefit of Evolution of Pesticide Tolerance Is Overruled under Combined Stressor Exposure due to Synergistic Stressor Interactions.

Despite pleas to consider both evolutionary and multistressor climate change perspectives to improve ecological risk assessment, the much needed combination of both perspectives is largely missing. This is especially important when evaluating the costs of the evolution of genetic tolerance to pollutants as these costs may become visible only under combined exposure to the pollutant and warming due to energetic constraints. We investigated the costs of chlorpyrifos tolerance in when sequentially exposed to 4-day pesticide treatments and 4-day heat spike treatments. Exposure to chlorpyrifos reduced the fitness of chlorpyrifos-sensitive clones (reduced survival, mass, and reproductive performance), while it had positive (hormetic) effects on clones selected for chlorpyrifos tolerance. We did not find any costs of chlorpyrifos tolerance in the absence of the stressors and only a weak sublethal cost when only exposed to the heat spike. Notably, when sequentially exposed to the pesticide and the heat spike, the benefit of the evolution of chlorpyrifos tolerance was nullified as the chlorpyrifos-tolerant clones experienced (stronger) synergistic interactions between both stressors and stronger thermal costs when preceded by exposure to the pesticide. This highlights the importance of multistressor studies to correctly assess the costs of genetic pesticide tolerance and the potential of evolution of pesticide tolerance to rescue nontarget populations.