More eggs are not more sires: long-term monogamy reduces fertility in a predatory ladybird.

Multiple mating is a behaviour observed across various polyandrous insect species. It is suggested that, in ladybirds, this strategy of multiple copulations is used to enhance fecundity and fertility through sperm replenishment. Studies on sperm depletion need to correlate fertility with the presence of spermatozoa in the spermatheca. This study investigates the role of sperm replenishment in the ladybird . We hypothesised that females of this species exhibit fecundity and fertility rates proportional to the number of sperm replenishment opportunities (constant, periodic or absent). We observed oviposition behaviour and hatching rates over 30 days, and simultaneously tested for sperm depletion in females that copulated once. We dissected the spermathecae at four post-copulation moments to count spermatozoa under a microscope. Our results indicate that a single copulation suffices to maintain fertility for at least 30 days. Females with constant replenishment opportunities exhibited higher fecundity but lower fertility and increased mortality, suggesting a reproductive cost associated with frequent mating. Females with no replenishment during the experiment, exhibited the highest hatchability rate and lowest oviposition. Periodic copulation resulted in optimal female mating rate, with average fertility and fecundity. A plausible hypothesis would be that paired females choose to fertilise fewer eggs from a single male but are unable to control the effects of the oviposition stimulus induced by the male's presence. These findings have implications for the management and rearing of in biological control programmes, optimizing mating strategies for mass production.