Entry, fate and impact of antibiotics in rice agroecosystem: a comprehensive review.

Antibiotics are extensively used to manage human, animal and plant ailments caused by microbial infections. However, rampant use of antibiotics has led to the development of antibiotic resistance, which is a public health concern. The development of antibiotic resistance is significantly influenced by agro-ecosystems. Rice agroecosystem receives high levels of antibiotics from direct applications, and sources like manure and irrigation water. Consequently, uptake of antibiotic residues by rice (Oryza sativa L.) is resulting in accumulation of antibiotics in plant parts. Accumulation of these antibiotics can be toxic to plant, and can be partitioned to rice grain and straw, and reach the human and animal food chain leading to the development of antibiotic resistance. Moreover, the antibiotics can alter soil microbes, which would result in loss of production. This study compiles information from existing literature on global antibiotic usage and explores how antibiotics enter the rice ecosystem through contaminated wastewater, manure, sewage sludge, and through direct application. A detailed discussion on the persistence and movement of antibiotics in different environment compartments is provided. The review also highlights the impacts of antibiotics on plants and natural microbiota, as well as issues pertaining to antimicrobial resistance in public health sectors. For sustainable mitigation of the issues of antibiotic residues in rice ecosystem, we suggest application of decontaminated manure, microbial bioremediation, optimization of the use of plant-based alternatives, enhancing regulations, and fostering global collaboration. We advocate integrated disease management approaches which can significantly reduce the antibiotic use in rice agroecosystem.