Towards Cleaner Cities: Estimating Vehicle-Induced PM with Hybrid EBM-CMA-ES Modeling.

In developing countries, vehicle emissions are a major source of atmospheric pollution, worsened by aging vehicle fleets and less stringent emissions regulations. This results in elevated levels of particulate matter, contributing to the degradation of urban air quality and increasing concerns over the broader effects of atmospheric emissions on human health. This study proposes a Hybrid Explainable Boosting Machine (EBM) framework, optimized using the Covariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES), to predict vehicle-related PM concentrations and analyze contributing factors. Air quality data were collected from Open-Seneca sensors installed along the Nairobi Expressway, alongside meteorological and traffic data. The CMA-ES-tuned EBM model achieved a Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 2.033 and an R of 0.843, outperforming other models. A key strength of the EBM is its interpretability, revealing that the location was the most critical factor influencing PM concentrations, followed by humidity and temperature. Elevated PM levels were observed near the Westlands roundabout, and medium to high humidity correlated with higher PM levels. Furthermore, the interaction between humidity and traffic volume played a significant role in determining PM concentrations. By combining CMA-ES for hyperparameter optimization and EBM for prediction and interpretation, this study provides both high predictive accuracy and valuable insights into the environmental drivers of urban air pollution, providing practical guidance for air quality management.