Neurosurgery and the Brain-Computer Interface.

Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are devices that connect the human brain to an effector via a computer and electrode interface. BCIs may also transmit sensory data to the brain. We describe progress with the many types of surgically implanted BCIs, in which electrodes contact or penetrate the cerebral cortex. BCIs developed for restoration of movement in paralyzed limbs or control a robotic arm; restoration of somatic sensation, speech, vision, memory, hearing, and olfaction are also presented. Most devices remain experimental. Commercialization is costly, incurs financial risk, and is time consuming. There are many ethical principles that should be considered by neurosurgeons and by all those responsible for the care of people with serious neurological disability. These considerations are also paramount when the technology is used in for the purpose of enhancement of normal function and where commercial gain is a factor. A new regulatory and legislative framework is urgently required. The evolution of BCIs is occurring rapidly with advances in computer science, artificial intelligence, electronic engineering including wireless transmission, and materials science. The era of the brain-"cloud" interface is approaching.