Educational assessment without numbers.

Psychometrics conceptualizes a person's (or , or ), in a cognitive or educational domain, as a latent numerical quantity. Yet both conceptual and empirical studies have shown that the assumption of quantitative structure for such phenomena is unlikely to be tenable. A reason why most applications of psychometrics nevertheless continue to treat them as if they were numerical quantities may be that quantification is thought to be necessary to enable . This is indeed true if one regards the task of measurement as the location of a measurand at a point on the real number line (the viewpoint adopted by, for example, the representational theory of measurement, the realist theory of measurement as the discovery of ratios, and Rasch measurement theory). But this is not the only philosophically respectable way of defining the notion of measurement. This paper suggests that van Fraassen's more expansive view of measurement as, in general, (which could be the real continuum, as in metrological applications in the physical sciences, but could be a different mathematical structure), provides a more appropriate conceptual framework for psychometrics. Taking educational measurement as a case study, it explores what that could look like in practice, drawing on fuzzy logic and mathematical order theory. It suggests that applying this approach to the assessment of intersubjectively constructed phenomena, such as a learner's proficiency in an inherently fuzzily-defined subject area, entails recognizing the theory-dependent nature of valid representations of such phenomena, which need not be conceived of structurally as values of quantities. Finally, some connections are made between this "qualitative mathematical" theorization of educational assessment, and the application of techniques from machine learning and artificial intelligence in this area.