Advancing groundwater quality predictions: Machine learning challenges and solutions.

Machine learning (ML) is revolutionizing groundwater quality research by enhancing predictive accuracy and management strategies for contamination. This comprehensive review explores the evolution of ML technologies and their integration into environmental science, assessing 230 papers to understand the advancements and challenges in groundwater quality research. It reveals that a substantial portion of the research neglects critical preprocessing steps, crucial for model accuracy, with 83 % of the studies overlooking this phase. Furthermore, while model optimization is more commonly addressed, being implemented in 65 % of the papers, there is a noticeable gap in model interpretability, with only 15 % of the research providing explanations for model outcomes. Comparative evaluation of ML algorithms and careful selection of evaluation metrics are deemed essential for determining model fitness and reliability. The review underscores the need for interdisciplinary collaboration, methodological rigor, and continuous innovation to advance ML in groundwater management. By addressing these challenges and implementing solutions, the full potential of ML can be harnessed to tackle complex environmental issues and ensure sustainable groundwater management. This comprehensive and critical review paper can serve as a guiding framework to establish minimum standards for developing ML in groundwater quality studies.