Children's exposure to halogenated flame retardants and organophosphate esters through dermal absorption and hand-to-mouth ingestion in Swedish preschools.

Children are exposed to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) through inhalation and ingestion, as well as through dermal contact in their everyday indoor environments. The dermal loadings of EDCs may contribute significantly to children's total EDC exposure due to dermal absorption as well as hand-to-mouth behaviors. The aim of this study was to measure potential EDCs, specifically halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) and organophosphate esters (OPEs), on children's hands during preschool attendance and to assess possible determinants of exposure in preschool indoor environments in Sweden. For this, 115 handwipe samples were collected in winter and spring from 60 participating children (arithmetic mean age 4.5 years, standard deviation 1.0) and analyzed for 50 compounds. Out of these, 31 compounds were identified in the majority of samples. Levels were generally several orders of magnitude higher for OPEs than HFRs, and 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP) and tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP) were detected in the highest median masses, 61 and 56 ng/wipe, respectively. Of the HFRs, bis(2-ethyl-1-hexyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (BEH-TEBP) and 2,2',3,3',4,4',5,5',6,6'-decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) were detected in the highest median masses, 2.8 and 1.8 ng/wipe, respectively. HFR and/or OPE levels were found to be affected by the number of plastic toys, and electrical and electronic devices, season, municipality, as well as building and/or renovation before/after 2004. Yet, the calculated health risks for single compounds were below available reference dose values for exposure through dermal uptake as well as for ingestion using mean hand-to-mouth contact rate. However, assuming a high hand-to-mouth contact rate, at the 95th percentile, the calculated hazard quotient was above 1 for the maximum handwipe mass of TBOEP found in this study, suggesting a risk of negative health effects. Furthermore, considering additive effects from similar compounds, the results of this study indicate potential concern if additional exposure from other routes is as high.