Solar photocatalytic degradation of ciprofloxacin using biochar supported zinc oxide- tungsten oxide photocatalyst.

Ciprofloxacin (CIP) is an antibiotic used to treat bacterial infections. It is not completely broken down during conventional wastewater treatment processes and can persist in the environment, leading to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This study focuses on the solar photocatalytic degradation CIP using biochar-supported photocatalysts. The photocatalysts developed by combining ZnO and WO in different ratios (1:2, 1:1, 2:1) were supported on hemp herd biochar. The photocatalyst made with a ratio of 2:1:1 of ZnO:WO:biochar (ZWH) reported the highest CIP degradation efficiency of 87.3% and TOC removal efficiency of 43.1% at a catalyst dosage of 2 g/L, initial CIP concentration of 3 mg/L, and treatment time of 150 min. Subsequently, the effects of operating parameters on CIP degradation were investigated using central composite design (CCD). About 85.4% degradation efficiency of CIP was obtained at optimum conditions (pH ∼8.4, initial CIP concentration ∼4.4 mg/L, catalytic dosage ∼3.4 g/L) within 90 min. A quadradic model was developed to interpret the linear and interactive effect of operating parameters on the CIP degradation efficiency with 2.24-4.59% error. The adsorption-desorption study showed around 42.21% of adsorbed CIP was desorbed from ZWH. Scavenger studies demonstrated that the CIP breakdown was notably done by the superoxide radical (O). The mechanism of CIP degradation was adsorption on biochar and subsequent degradation by photocatalyst. The prevalent degradation reactions such as C-N bond cleavage, decarboxylation, decarbonylation, defluorination, and ring opening lead to formation of various intermediates. The ZWH reusability test showed ~ 4.2% decrease in CIP removal efficiency after three cycles.