A novel expectation-maximization approach to infer general diploid selection from time-series genetic data.

Unlabelled: Detecting and quantifying the strength of selection is a main objective in population genetics. Since selection acts over multiple generations, many approaches have been developed to detect and quantify selection using genetic data sampled at multiple points in time. Such time series genetic data is commonly analyzed using Hidden Markov Models, but in most cases, under the assumption of additive selection. However, many examples of genetic variation exhibiting non-additive mechanisms exist, making it critical to develop methods that can characterize selection in more general scenarios. Thus, we extend a previously introduced expectation-maximization algorithm for the inference of additive selection coefficients to the case of general diploid selection, in which the heterozygote and homozygote fitness are parameterized independently. We furthermore introduce a framework to identify bespoke modes of diploid selection from given data, as well as a procedure for aggregating data across linked loci to increase power and robustness. Using extensive simulation studies, we find that our method accurately and efficiently estimates selection coefficients for different modes of diploid selection across a wide range of scenarios; however, power to classify the mode of selection is low unless selection is very strong. We apply our method to ancient DNA samples from Great Britain in the last 4,450 years, and detect evidence for selection in six genomic regions, including the well-characterized LCT locus. Our work is the first genome-wide scan characterizing signals of general diploid selection.

Author Summary: Natural selection increases the likelihood that beneficial genetic variants are passed from parent to offspring and thus forms the basis of genetic adaptation to novel environments. Genomic data sampled at multiple timepoints, such as genetic material extracted from ancient remains (ancient DNA) or data from evolve and resequence experiments, can enable more precise identification of genetic variants subject to selective pressure than contemporary samples alone. However, most methods for identifying genetic variation under selection focus on additive selection, where the fitness of the heterozygote is exactly intermediate between the homozygotes. Leveraging genetic data at multiple timepoints, we develop a method to detect additive and non-additive selection as well as to infer the most likely dominance mechanism. We apply our methods to a dataset of ancient DNA from Great Britain dated less than 4,450 years before present and identify six regions with signals of recent selection, including one at the TFR2 locus that has not been previously reported as a target of selection. Our work enables more accurate quantification of non-additive selection dynamics and can be used to test more complex models of selection.