Nonlinear beamforming for intracardiac echocardiography: a comparative study.

Unlabelled: Intracardiac echocardiography (ICE) enables cardiac imaging with a wide field of view, deep imaging depth, and high frame rate during surgery. However, strong sidelobe and grating lobe artifacts created by the ultra-compact transducer degrade its image quality, making diagnosis and monitoring of treatment difficult. Conventionally, aperture apodization algorithms are often used to suppress sidelobe and grating lobe artifacts at the expense of lateral resolution, which is undesirable in ICE. In this study, we present comparative results of the beamforming methods specifically in ICE application. We demonstrate and compare five nonlinear beamforming algorithms in ICE: nonlinear root delay and sum (NL--DAS), nonlinear root spectral magnitude scaling (NL--SMS), delay-and-sum with coherence factors (DAS + SCF), delay and sum with apodization (DAS + apodization) and delay and sum (DAS). Phantom and experiment compare the performance of each algorithm in static and dynamic conditions. DAS + SCF shows the best lateral resolution, and all four algorithms improve the image contrast and sidelobe suppression over conventional DAS. NL--SMS stands out for the best axial resolution and suppression of grating lobe artifacts. For motion tracking, NL--SMS shows better temporal resolution than other methods. Overall, all the beamforming algorithms other than DAS showed improved image quality. Among them, NL--SMS, which has a high temporal resolution, showed the potential for providing more accurate information regards movement tracking.

Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13534-024-00352-9.