Spatial and temporal distribution characteristics and risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater of Pingshuo mining area.

Groundwater pollution in the Pingshuo mining area is strongly associated with mining activities, with heavy metals (HMs) representing predominant pollutants. To obtain accurate information about the pollution status and health risks of groundwater, 189 groups of samples were collected from four types of groundwater, during three periods of the year, and analyzed for HMs. The results showed that the concentration of HMs in groundwater was higher near the open pit, waste slag pile, riverfront area, and human settlements. Except for Ordovician groundwater, excessive HMs were found in all investigated groundwater of the mining area, as compared with the standard thresholds. Fe exceeded the threshold in 13-75% of the groundwater samples. Three sources of HMs were identified and quantified by Pearson's correlation analysis and the PMF model, including coal mining activities (68.22%), industrial, agricultural, and residential chemicals residue and leakage (16.91%), and natural sources (14.87%). The Nemerow pollution index revealed that 7.58% and 100% of Quaternary groundwater and mine water samples were polluted. The health risk index for HMs in groundwater showed that the non-carcinogenic health risk ranged from 0.18 to 0.42 for adults, indicating an acceptable level. Additionally, high carcinogenic risks were identified in Quaternary groundwater (95.45%), coal series groundwater (91.67%), and Ordovician groundwater (26.67%). Both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks were greater for children than adults, highlighting their increased vulnerability to HMs in groundwater. This study provides a scientific foundation for managing groundwater quality and ensuring drinking water safety in mining areas.