Identification of hydrochemical fingerprints, quality and formation dynamics of groundwater in western high Himalayas.

Identifying hydrochemical fingerprints of groundwater is a challenge in areas with complex geological settings. This study takes the Gilgit-Baltistan, a complex geological area in west high Himalayas, Pakistan, as the study area to get insights into the hydrochemcial genesis and quality of groundwater in complex geological mountainous regions. A total of 53 samples were collected across the area to determine the hydrochemical characteristics and formation of groundwater. Results revealed groundwater there is characterized by slightly alkaline and soft fresh feature. Groundwater is dominated by the hydrochemical facies of HCO·SO-Ca·Mg type. The factor method yields three components (PCs) of principal component analysis, which together explain 75.71% of the total variances. The positive correlation of EC, TDS, Ca, SO, K in PC1, and NO, Cl in PC2 indicate that a combination of natural and anthropogenic activities influences groundwater hydrochemistry. Water-rock interaction is the main mechanism governing the natural hydrochemistry of groundwater. The negative correlation of Cl, SO, Ca, and Na with NDVI attributes to inorganic salt uptake by plant roots. Groundwater chemical composition is also affected by the type of land use. Groundwater is characterized as excellent and good water quality based on the entropy-weighted water quality index assessment, and is suitable for drinking purposes except for very few samples, while aqueous fluoride would pose potential health threats to water consumers in western high Himalayas, and infants are most at risk compared to other populations. This study will help to deepen the hydrochemial formation mechanism and exploitation suitability of groundwater resources in the mountainous areas that undergone the combined actions of nature and human activities, and provide insights into the characteristics of water environmental quality in western Himalayas area.