Air pollution and the burden of long-term care: Evidence from China.

We examine the causal effects of PM exposure on the burden of long-term care (LTC) by matching a satellite-based PM (particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometers (μm) in diameter) dataset with a nationally representative longitudinal study in China from 2011 to 2018. We find significant adverse effects of PM exposure-instrumented by thermal inversions-on the LTC burden. A 10 μg/m increase in annual PM exposure increases average monthly hours of LTC and the associated financial costs by 28 h and CNY 452, respectively. The effects are greater for those who had never smoked nor experienced severe PM pollution (annual average PM > 35 μg/m) in the previous 5 years. We also find that as PM increases, chronic diseases, particularly cardiovascular diseases, could lead to a higher likelihood of LTC dependency but reduce the total hours and costs of LTC provision. Finally, we find that PM reduces the total years of LTC need, suggesting that PM increases LTC costs by increasing the severity of LTC dependency, rather than the duration of LTC need. Our findings can assist policymakers in planning for LTC provisions and clean air policies.