Cadmium exposure and cardiovascular disease risk: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis.

Exposure to toxic metals is a global public health threat. Among other adverse effects, exposure to the heavy metal cadmium has been associated with greater risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Nonetheless, the shape of the association between cadmium exposure and CVD risk is not clear. This systematic review summarizes data on the association between cadmium exposure and risk of CVD using a dose-response approach. We carried out a literature search in PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase from inception to December 30, 2023. Inclusion criteria were: studies on adult populations, assessment of cadmium exposure, risk of overall CVD and main CVD subgroups as endpoints, and observational study design (cohort, cross-sectional, or case-control). We retrieved 26 eligible studies published during 2005-2023, measuring cadmium exposure mainly in urine and whole blood. In a dose-response meta-analysis using the one-stage method within a random-effects model, we observed a positive association between cadmium exposure and risk of overall CVD. When using whole blood cadmium as a biomarker, the association with overall CVD risk was linear, yielding a risk ratio (RR) of 2.58 (95 % confidence interval-CI 1.78-3.74) at 1 μg/L. When using urinary cadmium as a biomarker, the association was linear until 0.5 μg/g creatinine (RR = 2.79, 95 % CI 1.26-6.16), after which risk plateaued. We found similar patterns of association of cadmium exposure with overall CVD mortality and risks of heart failure, coronary heart disease, and overall stroke, whereas for ischemic stroke there was a positive association with mortality only. Overall, our results suggest that cadmium exposure, whether measured in urine or whole blood, is associated with increased CVD risk, further highlighting the importance of reducing environmental pollution from this heavy metal.