Zoonotic Cryptosporidium and Giardia in marsupials-an update.

Marsupials, inhabiting diverse ecosystems, including urban and peri-urban regions in Australasia and the Americas, intersect with human activities, leading to zoonotic spill-over and anthroponotic spill-back of pathogens, including Cryptosporidium and Giardia. This review assesses the current knowledge on the diversity of Cryptosporidium and Giardia species in marsupials, focusing on the potential zoonotic risks. Cryptosporidium fayeri and C. macropodum are the dominant species in marsupials, while in possums, the host-specific possum genotype dominates. Of these three species/genotypes, only C. fayeri has been identified in two humans and the zoonotic risk is considered low. Generally, oocyst shedding in marsupials is low, further supporting a low transmission risk. However, there is some evidence of spill-back of C. hominis into kangaroo populations, which requires continued monitoring. Although C. hominis does not appear to be established in small marsupials like possums, comprehensive screening and analysis are essential for a better understanding of the prevalence and potential establishment of zoonotic Cryptosporidium species in small marsupials. Both host-specific and zoonotic Giardia species have been identified in marsupials. The dominance of zoonotic G. duodenalis assemblages A and B in marsupials may result from spill-back from livestock and humans and it is not yet understood if these are transient or established infections. Future studies using multilocus typing tools and whole-genome sequencing are required for a better understanding of the zoonotic risk from Giardia infections in marsupials. Moreover, much more extensive screening of a wider range of marsupial species, particularly in peri-urban areas, is required to provide a clearer understanding of the zoonotic risk of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in marsupials.