Mangrove ecosystems in Southeast Asia region: Mangrove extent, blue carbon potential and CO emissions in 1996-2020.

This study aimed to analyze mangrove extent (ME), carbon stock, blue carbon potential, and CO emission from 1996 to 2020 in Southeast Asia region. The data was obtained through the Global Mangrove Alliance (GMA) on the platform www.globalmangrovewatch.org v.3. Furthermore, ME was analyzed descriptively and the triggers for mangrove land changes in each country were investigated through a relevant literature review. The spatial analysis was conducted for blue carbon potential, while CO emission was derived by multiplying net change by emission factor (EF) of mangrove ecosystem. The results showed that the total ME in Southeast Asia was 5.07 million hectares (Mha) in 1996, decreasing to 4.82 Mha by 2020 due to various land uses, primarily shrimp farming. The total carbon stock potential was 2367.68 MtC, while a blue carbon potential was 8682.32 MtCO-e, consisting of 1304.33 MtCO-e and 7377.99 MtCO-e from above-ground and soil carbon. Indonesia contributed 5939.57 MtCO-e to blue carbon potential, while Singapore and Timor-Leste had the lowest contributions of 1.05 MtCO-e and 1.37 MtCO-e, respectively. Carbon stock potential (AGC and SOC) in Southeast Asia was influenced by ME conditions. The relationship between ME and AGC was found to be exponential (AGC = 0.0307e; R = 0.9331; r = 0.9964, P < 0.01). Similarly, ME and SOC, or AGC and SOC showed a relationship where SOC = 0.2e (R = 0.937, r = 0.9965 and r = 0.9989, P < 0.01). The average CO-e emission in Southeast Asia reached 17.0760 MtCO-e yr and the largest were attributed to Indonesia at 16.3817 MtCO-e yr. Meanwhile, Brunei and Timor Leste did not show CO-e emission as mangrove in these countries absorbed more CO from the atmosphere at -0.034 MtCO-e yr and -0.0002 MtCO-e yr, respectively.