Water quality, criticality, and sustainability of mountain springs-a case study from the Nepal Himalaya.

In the hilly terrain of Nepal, springs are the main source of drinking water. With the increasing population, rapid urbanization, and unabated climate change, springs are under the risk of survival. There is increasing evidence that springs in the mid-hills of Nepal are drying up, or are reducing in discharge, or are deteriorating by water quality. As a result, local communities are facing unprecedented water stress. On this background scenario, assessment of water quality of the springs in the Marin Watershed of Sindhuli district of Nepal was carried out in this study. Spring water samples were collected during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon of 2020 and their hydrochemistry was analyzed. Further, springs' discharge was measured in situ and their criticality and sustainability were studied through community interaction. Results have revealed seasonal variation in spring discharge and spring water quality. Out of 39 flowing springs, water quality of 13, 8, and 6 springs, respectively, was very poor, poor, and unsuitable for drinking in the pre-monsoon. The count of springs with very poor, poor, and unsuitable drinking water quality during the post-monsoon was 8, 3, and 1, respectively. Occurrence of pathogenic bacteria (Escherichia coli) was identified in five spring samples which makes the spring water unsafe for drinking. Again, out of 51 springs studied, 12 are already dried up, and another 12 of the 39 flowing springs have become seasonal with very low discharge (0.03-0.07 L/s). The study highlights and emphasizes the need to protect the flowing springs and rejuvenate the dying springs of the Himalaya and of other parts of the world.