Comparative risk assessment studies estimating the hazard posed by long-term consumption of PPCPs in river water.

This study assesses the risk due to Emerging Contaminants (ECs), present in Indian rivers - Ganga (650 million inhabitants), Yamuna (57 million inhabitants), and Musi (7,500,000 inhabitants), 13 ECs in total, have been used for risk assessment studies. Their concentrations (e.g., Fluconazole: 236950 μg/l, Ciprofloxacin: 31000 μg/l, Caffeine: 21.57 μg/l, etc.) were higher than the threshold concentrations for safe consumption (e.g. Fluconazole allowable level is 3.8 μg/l, and Ciprofloxacin allowable level is 0.51 μg/l). Three different pathways of emerging contaminants (ECs) transfer (oral water ingestion, oral fish ingestion, and dermal water contact) have been considered and the study is carried out in 2 ways: (i) deterministic and (ii) probabilistic approaches (using Monte Carlo iterative methods with 10000 simulations) with the aid of a software - Risk (version 7.5). The risk value, quantified by Hazard Quotient (HQ) is higher than the allowable limit of 1 for several compounds in the three rivers like Fluconazole (HQ = 18276.713), Ciprofloxacin (HQ = 278.675), Voriconazole (HQ = 14.578), Cetirizine (HQ = 1006.917), Moxifloxacin (HQ = 8.076), Caffeine (HQ = 55.150), and Ibuprofen (HQ = 9.503). Results show that Fluconazole and Caffeine pose the maximum risk in the rivers via the "oral pathway" that allows maximum transfer of the ECs present in the river (93% and 82% contribution to total risk). The risk values vary from nearly 25 times to 19000 times the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) threshold limit of 1 (e.g., Caffeine Infant Risk = 25.990 and Fluconazole Adult Risk = 18276.713). The most susceptible age group, from this study, is "Adults" (19-70 years old), who stand the chance of experiencing the adverse health hazards associated with prolonged over-exposure to the ECs present in the river waters. Musi has the maximum concentration of pollutants and requires immediate remediation measures. Further, both methods indicate that nearly 60-70% of the population in all the three study areas are at risk of developing health hazards associated with over-exposure to ECs regularly, making the areas inhabitable.