Kidneys in heart failure: Impact of flozins.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and heart failure (HF) represent two modern diseases of civilization and are closely related. According to the concept of cardio-renal and reno-cardiac syndromes, most patients with CKD are affected by cardiovascular disease (CVD), and CVD (including HF) is one of the factors not only promoting progression of established CKD but also triggering its onset and development. Treatment of CVD and HF in CKD patients remains challenging since CKD patients are characterized by extremely diverse and strongly expressed risk profiles, and the data from well-designed clinical trials addressing this population are scarce. Nevertheless, it seems that most of the drugs used in the treatment of CVD and HF (including beta-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme [ACE] inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blocking agents, mineralocorticosteroid receptor antagonists, and sacubitril/valsartan) are of similar efficacy in patients with glomerular filtration rate (GFR) ranging between 45 and 60 ml/min/1.73 m² (although higher prevalence of side effects may limit their use). The data on cardiovascular (CV) drug efficacy in patients with lower GFR values (i.e. below 30-45 ml/min/1.73 m²) remain limited. In this review, we focused on the efficacy of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) in the treatment of CVD and HF in CKD patients with or without diabetes. SGLT2i are clearly cardioprotective in a wide spectrum of estimated GFR although the data for HF patients with respect to urine albumin-creatinine ratio (UACR) are scarce, and for those with significantly reduced estimated GFR are still not available or not convincing, even after completion of large-scale high-quality major cardiovascular outcome trials (CVOT) in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) or trials with flozins in CKD and HF.