α-Tocopherol-loaded multi-layer nanoemulsion using chitosan, and dextran sulfate: Cellular uptake, antioxidant activity, and in vitro bioaccessibility.

The potential of multi-layer nanoemulsions (NEs) for improving the cellular uptake, antioxidant activity, and in vitro bioaccessibility of α-tocopherol (ToC) was examined. ToC-loaded multi-layer NEs were prepared using lecithin (primary-NEs, P-NEs), chitosan (secondary-NEs, S-NEs), and dextran sulfate (tertiary-NEs, T-NEs) as wall materials. The bioadhesion, cellular permeability, and uptake of the multi-layer NEs were significantly higher than that of the free coumarin 6 (C6). As a result of cellular uptake, the mean fluorescence intensity of T-NEs was the highest among the three types of multi-layer NEs and was 9.8-fold higher than that of free C6. The cellular antioxidant abilities of P-NEs, S-NEs, and T-NEs were 40, 45, and 50 %, respectively. Multi-layer nanoencapsulation sustains free fatty acid release after digestion. Moreover, the bioavailability of T-NEs exhibited a two-fold increase compared with that of the free ToC. These findings indicate that by multi-layer NEs using a layer-by-layer method, the cellular uptake, in vitro bioaccessibility, and antioxidant activity of ToC can be improved. Furthermore, T-NEs using chitosan and dextran sulfate can potentially enhance the cellular uptake, in vitro bioaccessibility, and antioxidant activity of ToC. These findings would facilitate the application of multi-layer NEs for lipophilic bioactive compounds using biopolymers.