Cluster characteristics of embodied carbon emissions in the international trade of metals: a sectoral-regional modeling perspective.

To be able to formulate any plausible strategies for sustainability, it is critical to establish a clear understanding of the international metals trade system complexity and the consequences in emergent embodied carbon emissions (ECE). For this purpose, we proposed a two-layer framework based on the multi-regional input-output model for calculating ECE: the intermediate production and final consumption trade layers. The proposed framework model combines the construction of a clustering index system and conducting cluster analysis from both the regional and sectoral dimensions. It is shown that developed regions transfer carbon emissions to developing regions via metals trading. This happens especially in the intermediate production stage at a level of 1.35 times higher than the final consumption stage. Furthermore, the metal sector suffers the most from carbon transfers from manufacturing, with the most carbon emissions transferred to mining. Moreover, considering environmental and technological factors to cluster regions and sectors into four and three clusters. China and Russia are in a cluster under greater pressure to reduce emissions as compared to other nations. Also, the construction and manufacturing form a cluster that their reduction of carbon emissions will effectively reduce the ECE of the metal sector. As a result, policy implications for reducing carbon emissions are investigated for each cluster in the international trade of metals contributing to the ultimate goal of global sustainable development.