Toxigenic strains in South-East Queensland, Australian river waterways.

Cholera is a major public health problem in developing and underdeveloped countries; however, it remains of concern to developed countries such as Australia as international travel-related or locally acquired cholera or diarrheal disease cases are still reported. Cholera is mainly caused by cholera toxin (CT) producing toxigenic O1 and O139 serogroup strains. While most toxigenic cases in Australia are thought to be caused by international-acquired infections, Australia has its own indigenous toxigenic and non-toxigenic O1 and non-O1, non-O139 (NOVC) strains. In Australia, in the 1970s and again in 2012, it was reported that south-east Queensland riverways were a reservoir for toxigenic strains that were linked to local cases. Further surveillance on environmental reservoirs, such as riverways, has not been reported in the literature in the last 10 years. Here we present data from sites previously related to outbreaks and surveillance sampling to detect the presence of using PCR in conjunction with MALDI-TOF and whole-genome sequencing. In this study, we were able to detect NOVC at all 10 sites with all sites having toxigenic non-O1, non-O139 strains. Among 133 NOVC isolates, 22 were whole-genome sequenced and compared with previously sequenced Australian O1 and NOVC strains. None of the samples tested grew toxigenic or non-toxigenic O1 or O139, responsible for epidemic disease. Since NOVC can be pathogenic, continuous surveillance is required to assist in theclinical and envir rapid identification of sources of any outbreaks and to assist public health authorities in implementing control measures. IMPORTANCE is a natural inhabitant of aquatic environments, both freshwater and seawater, in addition to its clinical significance as a causative agent of acute diarrhea and extraintestinal infections. Previously, both toxigenic and non-toxigenic, clinical, and environmental strains have been reported in Queensland, Australia. This study aimed to characterize recent surveillance of environmental NOVC strains isolated from Queensland River waterways to understand their virulence, antimicrobial resistance profile and to place genetic current strains from Australia in context with international strains. The findings from this study suggest the presence of unique toxigenic in Queensland river water systems that are of public health concern. Therefore, ongoing monitoring and genomic characterization of strains from the Queensland environment is important and would assist public health departments to track the source of cholera infection early and implement prevention strategies for future outbreaks. The genomics of environmental could assist us to understand the natural ecology and evolution of this bacterium in natural environments with respect to global warming and climate change.