Assessing lead exposure in U.S. pregnant women using biological and residential measurements.

There is strong scientific evidence for multiple pathways of human exposure to lead (Pb) in residential settings, particularly for young children; however, less is known about maternal exposure during pregnancy and children's exposure during early lifestages. A robust, multi-faceted secondary analysis was conducted using data collected by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development in the 2009-2014 National Children's Study Vanguard Studies. Descriptive statistics summarized Pb concentrations of maternal blood, maternal urine, and house dust vacuum samples collected during pregnancy and residence surface wipes collected both during pregnancy and six months post-partum. The maternal blood Pb level geometric mean was 0.44 μg/dL (n = 426), with no women having values ≥ 5 μg/dL; creatinine-adjusted maternal urinary Pb geometric mean was 0.43 μg/g (n = 366). These blood and urine concentrations are similar to those observed for females in the general U.S. population in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010-2011 cycle. A modest correlation between maternal blood Pb and surface wipe measurements during pregnancy was observed (Spearman r = 0.35, p < 0.0001). Surface wipe Pb loadings obtained in mother's homes during pregnancy (n = 640) and from areas where children spent the most time at roughly 6 months of age (n = 99) ranged from 0.02 to 71.8 ng/cm, with geometric means of 0.47 and 0.49 ng/cm, respectively, which were relatively low compared to other national studies. Survey responses of demographic, lifestyle, and residence characteristics were assessed for associations with blood concentration and surface wipe loading. Demographic (e.g., race/ethnicity, income, education, marital status) and housing characteristics (e.g., year home built, paint condition, own or rent home, attached garage) were associated with both maternal blood and surface wipe loadings during pregnancy. The availability of residential environmental media and extensive survey data provided enhanced understanding of Pb exposure during pregnancy and early life.