A Historical Reflection on Scientific Advances in Understanding Thyroid Hormone Action.

Thyroid hormone (TH) has actions in every tissue of the body and is essential for normal development, as well as having important actions in the adult. The earliest markers of TH action that were identified and monitored clinically, even before TH could be measured in serum, included oxygen consumption, basal metabolic rate, serum cholesterol, and deep tendon reflex time. Cellular, rodent, amphibian, zebrafish, and human models have been used to study TH action. Early studies of the mechanism of TH action focused on saturable-specific triiodothyronine (T3) nuclear binding and direct actions of T3 that altered protein expression. Additional effects of TH were recognized on mitochondria, stimulation of ion transport, especially the sodium potassium ATPase, augmentation of adrenergic signaling, role as a neurotransmitter, and direct plasma membrane effects. The cloning of the thyroid hormone receptor (THR) genes in 1986 and report of the THR crystal structure in 1995 produced rapid progress in understanding the mechanism of TH nuclear action, as well as the development of modified THR ligands. These findings revealed nuances of TH signaling, including the role of nuclear receptor coactivators and corepressors, repression of positively stimulated genes by the unliganded receptor, THR isoform-specific actions of TRα (THRA) and TRβ (THRB), and THR binding DNA as a heterodimer with retinoid-x-receptor (RXR) for genes positively regulated by TH. The identification of genetic disorders of TH transport and signaling, especially Resistance to Thyroid Hormone (RTH) and monocarboxylate transporter 8 () defects, has been highly informative with respect to the mechanism of TH action. The impact of THR isoform, post-translational modifications, receptor cofactors, DNA response element, and selective TH tissue uptake, on TH action, have clinical implications for diagnosing and treating thyroid disease. Additionally, these findings have led to the development of novel TH and TH analogue therapies for metabolic, neurological, and cardiovascular diseases.