and Models for Assessing Drug Permeation across the Cornea.

Drug permeation across the cornea remains a major challenge due to its unique and complex anatomy and physiology. Static barriers such as the different layers of the cornea, as well as dynamic aspects such as the constant renewal of the tear film and the presence of the mucin layer together with efflux pumps, all present unique challenges for effective ophthalmic drug delivery. To overcome some of the current ophthalmic drug limitations, the identification and testing of novel drug formulations such as liposomes, nanoemulsions, and nanoparticles began to be considered and widely explored. In the early stages of corneal drug development reliable and alternatives, are required, to be in line with the principles of the 3Rs (Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement), with such methods being in addition faster and more ethical alternatives to studies. The ocular field remains limited to a handful of predictive models for ophthalmic drug permeation. cell culture models are increasingly used when it comes to transcorneal permeation studies. models using excised animal tissue such as porcine eyes are the model of choice to study corneal permeation and promising advancements have been reported over the years. Interspecies characteristics must be considered in detail when using such models. This review updates the current knowledge about and corneal permeability models and evaluates their advantages and limitations.