Human milk-associated bacterial communities associate with the infant gut microbiome over the first year of life.

Introduction: Microbial communities inhabiting the human infant gut are important for immune system development and lifelong health. One critical exposure affecting the bacterial colonization of the infant gut is consumption of human milk, which contains diverse microbial communities and prebiotics. We hypothesized that human milk-associated microbial profiles are associated with those of the infant gut.

Methods: Maternal-infant dyads enrolled in the New Hampshire Birth Cohort Study ( = 189 dyads) contributed breast milk and infant stool samples collected approximately at 6 weeks, 4 months, 6 months, 9 months, and 12 months postpartum ( = 572 samples). Microbial DNA was extracted from milk and stool and the V4-V5 region of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene was sequenced.

Results: Clustering analysis identified three breast milk microbiome types (BMTs), characterized by differences in , , , , and microbial diversity. Four 6-week infant gut microbiome types (6wIGMTs) were identified, differing in abundances of , , , , and /, while two 12-month IGMTs (12mIGMTs) differed primarily by presence. At 6 weeks, BMT was associated with 6wIGMT (Fisher's exact test value of  = 0.039); this association was strongest among infants delivered by Cesarean section (Fisher's exact test value of  = 0.0028). The strongest correlations between overall breast milk and infant stool microbial community structures were observed when comparing breast milk samples to infant stool samples collected at a subsequent time point, e.g., the 6-week breast milk microbiome associated with the 6-month infant gut microbiome (Mantel test -statistic = 0.53, value of  = 0.001). and species abundance were correlated in 6-week milk and infant stool, and 4- and 6-month milk species were associated with infant stool genera at 9 and 12  months.

Discussion: We identified clusters of human milk and infant stool microbial communities that were associated in maternal-infant dyads at 6 weeks of life and found that milk microbial communities were more strongly associated with infant gut microbial communities in infants delivered operatively and after a lag period. These results suggest that milk microbial communities have a long-term effect on the infant gut microbiome both through sharing of microbes and other molecular mechanisms.