Daphnia magna uptake and excretion of luminescence-labelled polystyrene nanoparticle as visualized by high sensitivity real-time optical imaging.

The environmental and ecological consequences of nanoplastics (NPs) draw increasing research interests and social concerns. However, the in situ and real-time detection of NPs from living organisms and transferring media remains as a major technical obstacle for scientific investigation. Herein we report a novel time-gated imaging (TGI) strategy capable of real-time visualizing the intake of NPs by an individual living organism, which is based on the polystyrene NPs labelled with lanthanide up-conversion luminescence. The limit of detection (LOD) of the TGI apparatus was 600 pg (SNR = 3) in a field of view of 2.4 × 3.8 mm. Taking Daphnia magna as the aquatic model, we investigated the dynamics of uptake and accumulation of NPs (500 μg/L) for 24 h, and the subsequent excretion process (in clean medium) for 48 h, and quantitively analyzed the distribution and the overall mass of NPs deposited in D. magna. The uptake of NPs via filter-feeding occurred in a few minutes, whereas a longer accumulation was found, in a timescale of several hours. And similar behaviors (bi-phase elimination) were also seen in the excretion, indicating the migration of NPs into the circulatory system. The average mass of NPs accumulated in an individual D. magna was ∼12 ng after 24 h exposure, indicating that D. magna as a filter feeder tends to retain NPs. The observed NPs accumulation in D. magna exemplifies the potential risk of aquatic ecosystem on exposure to NP contamination.