The role of food chain in antimicrobial resistance spread and One Health approach to reduce risks.

The incidence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is rapidly spreading worldwide. It is depleting the repertoire of antibiotics in use but the pace of development of new antibiotics is stagnant for decades. Annually, millions of people are killed by AMR. This alarming situation urged both scientific and civil bodies to take steps to curb AMR as a top priority. Here we review the various sources of AMR in the environment, especially focusing on the food chain. Food chain inculcates pathogens with AMR genes and serves as a conduit for its transmission. In certain countries, the antibiotics are more used in livestock than in humans. It is also used in agriculture crops of high value products. The indiscriminate use of antibiotics in livestock and agriculture increased rapid emergence of AMR pathogens. In addition, in many countries nosocomial settings are spewing AMR pathogens, which is a serious health hazard. Both the developed and low and middle income countries (LMIC) face the phenomenon of AMR. Therefore, a comprehensive approach for monitoring all sectors of life is required to identify the emerging trend of AMR in environment. AMR genes' mode of action must be understood to develop strategies to reduce risk. The new generation sequencing technologies, metagenomics and bioinformatics capabilities can be resorted to quickly identify and characterize AMR genes. The sampling for AMR monitoring can be done from multiples nodes of the food chain as envisioned and promoted by the WHO, FAO, OIE and UNEP under the One Health approach to overcome threat of AMR pathogens.