Competing constraints shape the nonequilibrium limits of cellular decision-making.

Gene regulation is central to cellular function. Yet, despite decades of work, we lack quantitative models that can predict how transcriptional control emerges from molecular interactions at the gene locus. Thermodynamic models of transcription, which assume that gene circuits operate at equilibrium, have previously been employed with considerable success in the context of bacterial systems. However, the presence of ATP-dependent processes within the eukaryotic transcriptional cycle suggests that equilibrium models may be insufficient to capture how eukaryotic gene circuits sense and respond to input transcription factor concentrations. Here, we employ simple kinetic models of transcription to investigate how energy dissipation within the transcriptional cycle impacts the rate at which genes transmit information and drive cellular decisions. We find that biologically plausible levels of energy input can lead to significant gains in how rapidly gene loci transmit information but discover that the regulatory mechanisms underlying these gains change depending on the level of interference from noncognate activator binding. When interference is low, information is maximized by harnessing energy to push the sensitivity of the transcriptional response to input transcription factors beyond its equilibrium limits. Conversely, when interference is high, conditions favor genes that harness energy to increase transcriptional specificity by proofreading activator identity. Our analysis further reveals that equilibrium gene regulatory mechanisms break down as transcriptional interference increases, suggesting that energy dissipation may be indispensable in systems where noncognate factor interference is sufficiently large.