Influence of water exchange rates on toxicity and bioaccumulation of hydrophobic organic chemicals in sediment toxicity tests.

In standardized sediment toxicity tests, the applied water exchange methods range from static to flow-through conditions and vary between protocols and laboratories even for the same test species. This variation potentially results in variable chemical exposure, hampering the interpretation of toxicity and bioaccumulation. To address these issues, we performed sediment toxicity tests with a mixture of three polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and the freshwater epibenthic amphipod as model chemicals and organism, respectively. Five standardized water exchange methods were applied: static, semi-static, or flow-through conditions. By measuring total () and freely dissolved concentrations () of PAHs with water sampling and direct immersion solid-phase microextraction methods, respectively, we found that in overlying water differed by a factor of up to 107 among water exchange conditions, whereas both and in pore water did not differ by more than a factor of 2.6. Similar survival rates, growth rates, and bioaccumulation of PAHs between water exchange methods suggest that was predominantly exposed to pore water rather than overlying water. By applying mechanistic kinetic modeling to simulate spatiotemporal concentration profiles in sediment toxicity tests, we discuss the importance of the water exchange rates and resulting temporal and spatial exposure variability for the extrapolation of laboratory sediment toxicity to field conditions, particularly for chemicals with relatively low hydrophobicity and sediments with low organic carbon content.