Determinants of the digital outcome divide in E-learning between rural and urban students: Empirical evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic based on capital theory.

Digital outcome divide, the inequality of the outcomes of exploiting and benefitting from the ICT access and usage, has been raised as a severe concern of the e-learning practices during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study drew on capital theory and related literature and conducted a survey of 492 Chinese middle school students to explore: (1) whether a digital outcome divide exists between rural and urban students under the e-learning condition during the COVID-19 pandemic; (2) if it does, how does students' every form of capital impact the digital outcome divide. Our results revealed several important findings. First, we confirmed the existence of the digital outcome divide between rural and urban students, as rural students reported lower levels of behavioral engagement in e-learning courses compared to their urban peers. Second, we found that differences exist between rural and urban students in habitus (i.e., intrinsic motivation) and forms of capital, including cultural (i.e., e-learning self-efficacy) and social capital (i.e., parental support and teacher support), which are the main causes of the digital outcome divide. Third, a Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis further confirmed that those factors could explain the major parts of the digital outcome divide between urban and rural students and that e-learning self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and parental support were the most dominant factors contributing to the rural-urban digital outcome divide in the e-learning context. Our study provides several important theoretical and managerial implications for researchers and educators.