Using the Software DeepWings© to Classify Honey Bees across Europe through Wing Geometric Morphometrics.

DeepWings© is a software that uses machine learning to automatically classify honey bee subspecies by wing geometric morphometrics. Here, we tested the five subspecies classifier (A. m. carnica, Apis mellifera caucasia, A. m. iberiensis, Apis mellifera ligustica, and A. m. mellifera) of DeepWings© on 14,816 wing images with variable quality and acquired by different beekeepers and researchers. These images represented 2601 colonies from the native ranges of the M-lineage A. m. iberiensis and A. m. mellifera, and the C-lineage A. m. carnica. In the A. m. iberiensis range, 92.6% of the colonies matched this subspecies, with a high median probability (0.919). In the Azores, where the Iberian subspecies was historically introduced, a lower proportion (85.7%) and probability (0.842) were observed. In the A. m mellifera range, only 41.1 % of the colonies matched this subspecies, which is compatible with a history of C-derived introgression. Yet, these colonies were classified with the highest probability (0.994) of the three subspecies. In the A. m. carnica range, 88.3% of the colonies matched this subspecies, with a probability of 0.984. The association between wing and molecular markers, assessed for 1214 colonies from the M-lineage range, was highly significant but not strong (r = 0.31, p < 0.0001). The agreement between the markers was influenced by C-derived introgression, with the best results obtained for colonies with high genetic integrity. This study indicates the good performance of DeepWings© on a realistic wing image dataset.