Genetic Characterization of Some Saudi Arabia's Accessions from Using Physio-Biochemical Parameters, Molecular Markers, DNA Barcoding Analysis and Relative Gene Expression.

L. is a medicinal plant, known as balsam, with pharmaceutical potential for its phytochemical activities and chemical constituents. Genetic diversity is a genetic tool used in medicinal plant evolution and conservation. Three accessions from were collected from three localities in Saudi Arabia (Jeddah, Jizan and Riyadh). Genetic characterization was carried out using physio-biochemical parameters, molecular markers (inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) and start codon targeted (SCoT)), DNA barcoding (18 S rRNA and ITS rDNA regions), relative gene expressions (phenylalanine ammonia-lyase 1 (PAL1), defensin (PR-12)) and pathogenesis-related protein (AFPRT). The results of this study showed that accession C3, collected from Riyadh, had the highest content from the physio-biochemical parameters perspective, with values of 92.54 mg/g and 77.13 mg/g for total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC), respectively. Furthermore, the highest content of antioxidant enzyme activity was present in accession C3 with values of 16.87, 60.87, 35.76 and 27.98 U mg for superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT) (mol/min/mg FW) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) (U mg protein), respectively. The highest total number of bands and number of unique bands were 138 and 59, respectively, for the SCoT marker. The SCoT marker was the most efficient for the genetic diversity of by producing the highest polymorphism (75.63%). DNA barcoding using 18 S and ITS showed the nearby genus and clustered . accessions from Jeddah and Jizan in one clade and the accession from Ryiadh in a separate cluster. Moreover, relative gene expression of the PAL1, defensin (PR-12) and AFPRT (PR1) genes was upregulated in the . accession from Ryiadh. In conclusion, ecological and environmental conditions in each locality affect the genomic expression and genetic diversity, which can help the evolution of important medicinal plants and improve breeding and conservation systems.