Inter-organ regulation by the brain in development and physiology.

The brain plays an essential role in regulating physiological homeostasis by communicating with other organs. Neuronal cells either directly innervate target tissues and transmit signals or secrete systemic factors into the hemolymph to regulate bodily functions, including physiology, development, metabolism, and immunity. In this review, we discuss the systemic functions of inter-organ communication mediated by the brain in four distinct categories: (1) nutrient sensing and feeding, (2) gastrointestinal activity and metabolism, (3) development and metamorphosis, and (4) immunity and hematopoiesis. First, we describe how chemosensory signals are sensed and transmitted to the brain in and how the brain stimulates or modifies feeding behavior. Second, we summarize the brain-organ axis that regulates appetite activities and neuroendocrine pathways that maintain metabolic homeostasis. Third, we discuss how overall development in is achieved by insulin and how it affects ecdysone signaling to initiate pupariation. Finally, we discuss how the central or peripheral nervous system controls hematopoiesis and innate immunity in larvae. Given the functional parallels between and humans, homologous pathways are likely to be conserved in human development and disease models, and the fly model system will continue to provide mechanistic insights into understanding complex interactions.